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Issued February 17, 1912. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

173 



OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN 245. 

A. C. TRUE, Director. 



COURSE IN THE USE AND PREPARATION 
OF VEGETABLE FOODS 

FOR MOVABLE AND CORRESPONDENCE 
SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. 



ANNA BARROWS, 

Director, School of Domestic Science, Chautauqua, K. Y., and Instructor, 
School of Household Arts, Columbia University. 



WASHINGTON: 
GOV! kvmkxt PRINTING 
1912. 



1407 Issued February 17, 1912. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN 245. 

A. C. TRUE, Director. 



COURSE IN THE USE AND PREPARATION 
OF VEGETABLE FOODS ^ a f 

FOR MOVABLE AND CORRESPONDENCE 
SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. 



ANNA BARROWS, 

Director, School of Domestic Science, Chautauqua, N. Y., and Instructor, 
School of Household Arts, Columbia University. 




WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 



33 



OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

A. C. True, Ph. D., Director. 

E. W. Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director and Editor of Experiment Station Record. 

John Hamilton, Farmers' Institute Specialist. 

J. M. Stedman, Assistant Farmers' Institute Specialist. 

2 



n Of 

5 t§t? 






LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Office of Experiment Stations, 

Washington, D. C, October 10, 1911. 
Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for 
publication as Bulletin 245 of this office a Course in the Use and 
Preparation of Vegetable Foods, prepared by Miss Anna Barrows, 
of the School of Household Arts of Columbia University, and direc- 
tor of the School of Domestic Science at Chautauqua, N. Y., and 
edited under the supervision of C. F. Langworthy, chief of nutrition 
investigations of this office. It has been the author's purpose to 
reduce the subject of the preparation of vegetable foods to such 
pedagogical form that the student may be brought to know in a 
comparatively brief period not only how food of this character 
should be prepared, but also be taught the relative value of different 
vegetable foods and the principles which underlie their rational use. 
The series of courses of which this bulletin is one was originally 
intended for use exclusively in movable schools of agriculture. As 
extension teaching has developed it has become apparent that the 
courses ought, if possible, to be made available for a much larger 
body of students than can be reached by the short-course and movable- 
school method. In order to do this the form of the present bulletin 
has been modified from those that have preceded it in this series-, 
with a view to adapting it to use in teaching by correspondence. 
The changes consist mainly in somewhat greater detail of explana- 
tion in the body of the text, the addition of a list of queries following 
each lecture, and the printing of the lectures separately in the bulle- 
tin so that they may be detached and given to the members of the 
class for reference in their reading and practice work. 
Respectfully, 

A. C. True, Director. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

3 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Prefatory note '■ 9 

General suggestions to teachers 13 

First lecture — Classification of plants 15 

Introductory — Relation of economic botany to cookery 15 

The structure of plants 17 

Food plants and their composition 18 

Experiment and practice work, first lecture 19 

Composition of foods 19 

Water and mineral matter 19 

Fat 19 

Protein 19 

Starch 20 

Sugar 20 

Germination tests with'seeds, etc 20 

Review questions, first lecture 20 

Second lecture — Leaves and stalks 21 

Use of raw vegetables 21 

Experiment and practice work, second lecture 24 

Lettuce 25 

Celery 25 

Cabbage 25 

Salads and salad dressings 25 

Review questions, second lecture 26 

Third lecture — Leaves and stalks — Continued 27 

Wild plants used as potherbs 27 

Cultivated potherbs or greens 28 

Seaweeds 30 

Experiment and practice work, third lecture 31 

Preparation and cooking of potherbs and similar vegetables 31 

Review questions, third lecture 32 

Fourth lecture— Bulbs 33 

The onion tribe 33 

Experiment and practice work, fourth lecture 35 

Preparation of onions 35 

Methods of cooking 35 

Securing onion flavor 36 

Spanish onion 36 

Onion and apple salad 36 

Onion soup without meat 37 

Fried onions 37 

Stuffed onions 37 

Onion custard , 37 

Onion soufI16 37 

Review questions, fourth lecture 37 



6 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Fifth lecture — Tubers and roots 39 

White or Irish potatoes 39 

Sweet potatoes 41 

Jerusalem artichoke, yam, cassava, and other starch-bearing tubers and 

roots 41 

Experiment and practice work, fifth lecture 43 

Potatoes 43 

Baked 43 

Boiled 44 

Steamed 44 

Mashed 44 

Cut and boiled 44 

Soup 44 

Salad 44 

Experiments with starchy materials 44 

Review questions, fifth lecture 44 

Sixth lecture — Succulent roots 45 

Beets 45 

Turnips 45 

Kohl-rabi 46 

Radishes 46 

Carrots 46 

Parsnips 46 

Celeriac 46 

Salsify 47 

Condimental roots 47 

Experiment and practice work, sixth lecture 47 

Parsnips, salsify, beet, and celeriac 47 

Carrots 48 

White sauce for vegetables 48 

Review questions, sixth lecture 48 

Seventh lecture — Flowers and fruits 49 

Flowers and products made from them 49 

Capers 49 

Cauliflower 49 

Globe artichoke 49 

Honey 50 

Colors and flavoring extracts 50 

Fruits used as vegetables •. 51 

Pumpkins and squash 51 

Cucumbers and melons 51 

Peppers 52 

Okra 52 

Eggplant 53 

Tomato 53 

Bananas 54 

Experiment and practice work, seventh lecture 54 

Review questions, seventh lecture 54 

Eighth lecture— Seeds 55 

Beans, peas, and lentils 56 

Peanuts 58 

Cottonseed ^ 59 



CONTENTS. 7 

Eighth lecture— Seeds — Continued. Page. 

Cereal seeds as vegetables 59 

Wheat, oats, and rice 59 

Corn 59 

Buckwheat •- 60 

Experiments and practice work, eighth lecture 60 

Comparison of fresh, dried, and canned legumes 60 

Lima beans 61 

Baked beans 61 

Cowpeas 61 

Review questions, eighth lecture 62 

Ninth lecture — Fungi 63 

Mushrooms, etc 63 

Mildew, molds, and ferments 64 

Yeast : 65 

Experiment and practice work, ninth lecture 65 

Mushrooms •. .' 65 

Mold and decay 65 

Yeasts and fermentations 65 

Review questions, ninth lecture 66 

Tenth lecture — Condimental vegetable foods and food accessories 67 

Condimental vegetables and prepared relishes 67 

Flavoring materials 68 

Herbs 68 

Spices 68 

Flavoring extracts 68 

Beverages 69 

Tea 69 

Coffee 69 

Chocolate and cocoa 69 

Miscellaneous food accessories 69 

Experiment and practice work, tenth lecture 69 

Flavoring materials 69 

Spices and herbs 70 

Flavoring extracts 70 

Beverages 70 

Tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate 70 

Review questions, tenth lecture 70 

Eleventh lecture — Summary of cookery 71 

Choosing, sorting, and cleaning vegetables 71 

Combinations of vegetables 73 

Utensils used in cooking vegetables 74 

Cooking terms 74 

Time of cooking 75 

Ways of serving 75 

Soups 75 

Salads 75 

Scallops 75 

Fritters 75 

Croquettes 76 

Frying 76 

Experiment and practice work, eleventh lecture 76 

Review questions, eleventh lecture 76 



8 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Twelfth lecture — Drying, evaporating, and salting vegetables 77 

Drying and evaporating foods 77 

Preserving by salting 78 

Experiment and practice work, twelfth lecture 79 

Drying vegetable substances 79 

Restoring dried fouds to their original conditions 79 

Review questions, twelfth lecture 80 

Thirteenth lecture — Preserving and canning vegetables 81 

Preserving with sugar 81 

Preserving by sterilization — Canning 83 

Experiment and practice work, thirteenth lecture 84 

Action of bacteria, molds, etc 84 

Sugar , 85 

Canning 85 

Review questions, thirteenth lecture 86 

Fourteenth lecture — Pickling vegetables ". : 87 

Vinegar 87 

Herb vinegars 87 

Pickles and sauces 87 

Care of pickled and canned goods 8S 

Experiment and practice work, fourteenth lecture. 80 

Simple pickles &'J 

Combination in pickling 89 

Review questions, fourteenth lecture t . 90 

Fifteenth lecture — Vegetables for the table : Marketing 91 

Cultivating vegetables for the table 91 

Weights and measures 92 

Trade customs and market conditions 92 

Growing vegetables for the home table 93 

Experiment and practice work, fifteenth lecture 94 

Review questions, fifteenth lecture 94 

Appendix 95 

References 95 

List of apparatus and supplies required 97 



PREFATORY NOTE. 



The aim of this course is to make available to country people and 
others not able to attend fixed schools of home economics the main 
facts connected with the preparation and use of vegetable foods. The 
effort has been to arrange these facts in such pedagogic form that 
they may be studied successfully by persons having had little oppor- 
tunity for instruction along scientific lines. On the other hand, a 
certain amount of practical acquaintance with domestic art is ex- 
pected of those registering for study as well as a degree of scholastic 
acquirement equal to at least the completion of the eighth grade in 
school. The course is for adults and not for persons of immature 
age or inexperience. 

In the movable-school course as originally contemplated the teacher 
was expected to be an expert, thoroughly familiar with the subject 
taught, and able to add to the information given in the printed lessons 
by drawing from his own resources. He was also expected to be able 
to conduct the reviews and the periodical and final examinations 
without the aid of a list of questions other than his own. 

Inability to secure a sufficient number of experts of this character 
and the expense involved has led to the effort to adapt the movable- 
school courses to correspondence work, the instruction to be initiated 
and controlled by a central institution. Under the correspondence 
method the leader directly in charge of the local work may be a lay- 
man with perhaps only slight experience in teaching and limited in- 
formation along scientific lines. The main business of this leader 
is to see that the work required of each student is performed as out- 
lined in the printed course. He is also in charge of the apparatus 
and material for laboratory work and has oversight and direction 
of all the operations prescribed for performance by the students. 

Experience has demonstrated that study b}' isolated individuals 
under the old correspondence method is impracticable except in in- 
stances too few to be regarded in a system that is to be effective in 
reaching the masses. The organization of students, therefore, into 
classes is essential in correspondence work. The leader preferably 
should be a resident of the neighborhood in which the class is organ- 
ized. This class leader must be approved and appointed by the head 

9 



10 PKEFATOKY NOTE. 

of the extension department, and when appointed becomes the offi- 
cial representative of that department and is held responsible for 
all apparatus, books, and material furnished to the class by the insti- 
tution under whose auspices the correspondence course is conducted. 
He conducts the quiz on the previous day's lesson, using the printed 
questions; .presents the lesson of the day by reading the printed out- 
line before the class ; assists the students in their reference work and 
oversees the practicums. He keeps a record of attendance, requires 
and receives the examination papers of the members, and submits 
them, together with his report upon the week's work, to the chief of 
the extension department at the central institution. 

The correspondence course is intended to be organized and con- 
ducted under the oversight of the agricultural-extension department 
of the agricultural college or experiment station. In organizing the 
class a representative of this extension department should A T isit the 
community, select the leader, list the names of those who wish to 
join, assist in securing proper rooms in which the class exercises are 
to be conducted, and make out the order on the college or experiment 
station for the material needed in conducting the course. 

Apparatus and supplies for the class are to be furnished by the 
extension department sufficient to provide each student with a com- 
plete set for his individual use during the course. Each student is 
to be charged in an itemized account with the apparatus and material 
committed to him, the money to be refunded at the close of the school 
period, less 10 per cent, and the cost of material consumed or broken. 

The expenses connected with securing a hall, providing janitor 
service, water, light, heat, seating, and all incidentals are to be met 
by the locality in which the class is held. Each member is required 
to pay a registration fee, in addition to the fee for apparatus and 
supplies. This registration fee is to be an amount sufficient to 
meet the salary of the leader of the class, and such minor incidental 
expenses as may be necessary. At the close of each week an exami- 
nation upon the lectures of the week is to be written up by each 
student upon blanks provided by the extension department, to be 
transmitted through the leader of the class to the chief of the exten- 
sion department for inspection and rating. At the completion of the 
course an examination upon the entire course will be conducted by a 
representative of the extension department who visits the community 
and conducts the examination exercises. To all who complete the 
course and pass the examination satisfactorily a certificate of the fact 
is made out and given to the student by the institution under whose 
auspices the course is conducted. This certificate entitles the holder 
to credits for entrance in case he should desire to become a resident 
student. 



PREFATORY NOTE. 11 

The course is a " study course " and not a set of lectures to be 
received without subsequent effort on the part of the students. By- 
it they are shown where to get information. They are then expected 
to look up the references for themselves and apply the teachings. 
The leader is to see that the study is performed by each student, that 
the references are consulted and tested by laboratory methods, and 
that the examination papers are made out and forwarded regularly 
to the extension department responsible for the course. 

The bulletin is so printed and bound that the lectures may be 
detached and given to the students of the class as each is delivered, 
thus avoiding the necessity for taking note's, and providing also a 
reference list for reading and for laboratory use. 

Classes in correspondence study can be organized with little effort 
and to a great advantage by granges, farm clubs, young peoples' insti- 
tutes, county farmers' institutes, high schools in vacation periods, and 
by county fair associations. 

Instructions giving detailed information respecting the use of this 
and the other courses in correspondence work have been prepared and 
can be had upon application to the farmers' institute division of the 
Office of Experiment Stations. 

John Hamilton, 
Farmers' Institute Specialist. 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS FOR MOVABLE 
AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

It is desirable that the student should know in advance of entering 
the class something of the structure of plants and of the vital proc- 
esses that go on within them. Some knowledge also of the chemical 
composition of food plants is necessary if the study is to be pursued 
to the best advantage, and he should have some information as to 
the functions of the digestive organs of the body and of the material 
needed for its sustenance and some understanding of the changes 
that food undergoes in its assimilation. It may be well for the 
teacher at the outset to utilize two or three of the lecture periods in 
giving information and in directing the reading along these lines. 

It is not essential that the lessons be given in the precise order in 
which they are here presented. It may be found advisable to change 
the order to meet local conditions. In some instances also the practice 
exercises are more than can be accomplished in a single period. In 
such case they can be continued and completed later. 

When the course is used in correspondence teaching and the leader 
is not a thoroughly trained expert the class will necessarily be depend- 
ent almost wholly upon the printed text, the reference readings, and 
the practice exercises for instruction. The leader, however, is ex- 
pected to study the course in advance of the students and be able to 
answer such questions as the particular lesson being studied suggests. 

The queries at the end of each exercise are intended to aid in fixing 
the leading points in the students' minds, and the weekly examina- 
tions, to be sent in to the correspondence department for criticism and 
correction, give opportunit} 7 for that department to keep informed 
as to the quality of the work. The majority of the questions have 
to do with facts brought out in the lessons, but some of them refer 
to matters which the student is expected to gather from the supple- 
mentary reading suggested. The final examination by a member of 
the extension department will determine the grade of each member 
of the class. 

Each lesson is to be followed by reference reading by the students, 
and later by practice exercises or laboratory work. The books re- 
ferred to in the lectures constitute the library of reference'. Appa- 
ratus sufficient to furnish each student with a set for use in practice 
work is supplied at a nominal rental by the department conducting 
the course. 

13 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

FIRST LECTURE— CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 
INTRODUCTORY — RELATION OF ECONOMIC BOTANY TO COOKERY. 

A great variety of food plants are included under the term " vege- 
tables," and there are many matters connected with their growth, 
selection, and preparation as human foods that are important in a 
study of their economic value and use. 

Their study may be conducted along a variety of lines, depending 
upon the use to which the information sought is intended to be 
applied. They may be studied with reference to — 

(1) Their discovery and improvement by man. 

(2) Their classification by botanists. 

(3) The parts of each plant desirable for food. 

(4) Their chemical composition and food value. 

(5) The commercial conditions of their transmission from pro- 
ducer to consumer. 

(6) The culinary processes through which they must pass before 
they can be properly utilized by the human body as food. 

This course of study is more particularly along the line of the 
sixth item in this list — the culinary processes through which vege- 
tables must pass before they can be properly utilized b}^ the human 
body as food. 

Few of the vegetables which are now man's main dependence were 
attractive in their original form, but most have been evolved through 
centuries of cultivation and experiment. (Reference Xo. 90, pp. 
9-30.) Cookery as well as agriculture has served to increase the 
number of plants available for food. " The number of inhabitants 
that can be supported in a country depends as much upon the art of 
cookery as upon that of agriculture ; both arts belong to civilization," 
said Count Rumford, a pioneer in scientific food study. 

Primitive man gave little thought to agriculture, but took seeds, 

fruits, roots, leaves, and stalks, or fish and game, as nature provided 

them, thus satisfying his hunger and getting such variety as he could. 

In the division of labor between the sexes in early times the men 

were usually the hunters, and the women gathered, transported, and 

stored the simple forms of vegetable foods, including fruits and nuts, 

roots and seeds. (Reference No. 90, pp. 9-30. 67.) 

L5 
[Vegetable Foods. Bui. 245.] 



16 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

The evolution of the use of plant products as food has been de- 
scribed as follows (Reference No. 90, p. 15) : 

In her exploitation of the vegetable world, woman first appears as taking 
from the hands of nature those fruits and other parts of the plants that were 
ready for consumption without further preparation. On the next journey she 
ventured a step farther. With digging stick and carrying basket she went t<> 
search out roots and such other parts of plants as might be prepared for con- 
sumption by roasting or perhaps by boiling with hot stones. On her third 
journey she gathered seeds of all kinds, but especially the seeds of grasses, 
which at her hand were to undergo a multitude of transformations. Wherever 
tribes of mankind have gone women have found out by and by that great staple 
productions were to be their chief reliance. In Polynesia it is taro and bread- 
fruit. In Africa it is palm and tapioca, millet and yams. In Asia it is rice, in 
Europe the cereals, and in America corn and potatoes, and acorns or piiions in 
some places. The whole industrial life of women is built up around these 
staples. From the first journey on foot to procure the raw material until the 
food is served and eaten, there is a line of trades that are continuous and are 
born of the environment. 

The occupations necessarily grouped around any vegetal industry are the 
gathering of the plant or the parts to be utilized, the transportation of 
the harvest from the field to the place of storage, the activities necessary to 
change a raw foodstuff into an elaborated product, and lastly, the cooking and 
serving of the meal. It may be stated with much certitude, though there are 
noteworthy exceptions, that all of these processes in savagery were the function 
of women, and in their performance she includes within herself a multitude of 
callings, some of which now belong largely to men. 

To trace the common vegetables back to their sources from our 
times through past ages by aid of literature and history would be an 
interesting task. 

The possibilities of the agriculturists and cooks of the future are 
seen when we learn that of the more than 100,000 species of flowering 
plants now known, only about 300 species are yet cultivated to any 
extent, and some of these have been used for thousands of years. 
(Reference No. 67, Vol. II, p. 3.) The enormous possibilities of se- 
curing new and valuable plants by crossing and breeding should also 
be remembered. Yet large markets offer hardly 50 varieties of vege- 
tables, and most families use less than half this number. 

There are many ways of classifying the plants which are useful 
to man (Reference Nos. 18, pp. 6, 7; 64, p. 120; 69, pp. 289-291; 91, 
p. 241) ; a simple plan is to divide them according to their uses into — 

(1) Those that yield food for man, or for those animals which in 
turn serve as food for man ; 

(2) Those which furnish materials for clothing and shelter; and 

(3) Those which supply no material need, but add beauty to 
human suroundings. 

For accurate designation of plants the Latin form of names are 
used, and some familiarity with these is necessary in studying this 
subject or even for reference to the dictionaries and encyclopaedias. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 17 

The majority of the plants mentioned in these lessons belong to 
the following families. Familiar examples are given after the name 
of each group. (Keference No. 67, Vol. II, p. 2.) 

Chenopodiacese : Beets and spinach. 

Composite or composite family: Jerusalem artichoke. 

Crucif erae or mustard family : Mustard and cabbage. 

Cucurbitacese or gourd family : Squash and cucumber. 

Graminese or grass family : Indian corn, rice, and wheat. 

Leguminosae or pulse family : Beans and peas. 

Liliacese or lily family: Onions and leek. 

Solanacese or nightshade family : Potato and tomato. 

Umbelliferse or parsley family: Carrot and parsnip. 

THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 

Every plant may be considered a factory into which are carried 
substances from the air and the earth to be manufactured into other 
and very different products. In general, the processes which go on 
within the plants are those of upbuilding, the substances which enter 
being very simple and the majorit}^ of those which are produced 
being complex. 1 

In accordance with the classification on page 16, some plants may 
be considered factories for the manufacture of food, others factories 
for the manufacture of textile fibers, while still others may be con- 
sidered factories for the manufacture of fuel or building materials. 
Some serve several or all of these purposes. But whatever may be 
the use to which the plants are put, they all have certain character- 
istics in common which may be learned from any work on botany. 
(Eeference Nos. 79; 81, pp. 50-53; 85, pp. 105, 144-153.) 

In studying plants in general we learn that they have a framework 
of a substance which is known as cellulose and that this cellulose 
frequently surrounds other materials in the plant. It gives to some 
plant tissues such tenacity that they may be used for textiles. In 
those plants or parts of plants which are used for fuel, wood, for 
example, it is the chief source of heat. (Keference Nos. 65, pp. 20- 
30; 92.) It is, however, acted upon with difficulty by most chemical 
reagents and it can be digested in appreciable amounts by human 
beings only when it is very young. In approaching the study of food 
plants, therefore, we need to be made familiar not only with those 
plant materials which can be utilized for food but also with this other 
substance, cellulose, which is invariablv present. (Reference No. 83, 
p. 94.) 

1 The general structure of the plant may be shown under the microscope, or when that 
Is not available, by pictures or lantern slides. (Reference No. 67, Vol. II, pp. 11-21.) 

14579°— Bull. 245—12 2 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



18 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

FOOD PLANTS AND THEIR COMPOSITION. 

Within the network of cellulose which is to be found in all plants 
most of the nutritious materials of the food plants are deposited. 
Since the cellulose is not digested except when very young, it is 
usually necessary to soften it in some way so as to prevent its inter- 
ference with the digestion of other substances. This is usually done 
by heat, but to accomplish it water must be present. Sometimes 
there is sufficient water in the vegetable itself. The potato, for 
example, is three-fourths water; even when a potato is baked, there- 
fore, its starch and other ingredients are heated in water. If the 
vegetable has been dried, it is necessary to soak it in water before 
cooking it. 

Though the greater part of the cellulose of vegetable foods remains 
undigested, it plays an important part in the digestion of other 
nutrients. These other nutrients are gradually rendered soluble by 
the digestive juices and are absorbed. If it were not. therefore, for 
the presence of cellulose, the bulk of the food in the alimentary canal 
would become so small as to make its passage through the canal diffi- 
cult. This is the reason why it is so frequently said that cellulose is 
useful chiefly to give bulk to the food. 

Most foods include more or less refuse as well as the edible portion. 
Modern commercial enterprise separates much of the refuse before 
delivering foods to the consumer. 1 The edible portion consists of 
water and four types of nutrients. (Reference Nos. 7, pp. 11-14; 
34, pp. 12-13, 17.) 

Water. — This substance, essential to life, is present in almost all 
foods, but in varying proportions. Even the dry cereals and other 
seeds contain 10 per cent or more. Watery juice is often apparent 
to the sight or touch or will be yielded from many fresh vegetables 
by pressure. Dry seeds must be soaked or cooked in water before 
they are fit for food. 

Mineral matter. — In most vegetables the percentage of ash is higher 
than in grains. When one notes the small bit of ash remaining after 
food is burned and considers that ash contains calcium, iron, potas- 
sium, sulphur, etc., one realizes how small an amount of each mii-f be 
present. Still, these minute quantities, often, in all. barely 1 per cent 
of the total weight of the food, are essential to health. Such mate- 
rials are considered much more efficacious when taken into the body 
in this form than in " spring medicines." (Reference Nos. 33 and 36.) 

Fat. — Comparatively few common vegetables contain enough fat 
to have it show readily. Nuts, such as pecans and coconuts and 
seeds, such as cottonseed, peanuts (a beanlike seed commonly called 

1 In every lesson attention may be directed to the small percentage of each plant 
which is useful as food. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 19 

a nut) , sesame, mustard, and corn, and such fruits as the olive and 
avocado, or alligator pear, may yield a considerable amount. The 
lack of fats in most vegetables justifies the habit of using cream, but- 
ter, meat fats, or olive oil with them, as is generally done. 

Protein. — Except in legumes there is too little protein, as the total 
nitrogenous material is called, in vegetables to be detected by simple 
experiments. From the point of view of dietetics this is not signifi- 
cant, for vegetables are commonly eaten with meat and milk products 
which supply protein and fat. 

Carbohydrates. — As a class vegetables are rich in carbohydrates. 
Starch, cellulose, and sugar are usually all present. Though the 
amount of sugar is usually small it is apparent in the sweet taste of 
squash, young peas, and green corn. (Eeference Nos. 34, p. 25 ; 81, 
pp. 53-57.) 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FIRST LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — Test tubes, paper, cheesecloth, wire strainer, filter paper, 
alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner ; a few each of large seeds such as corn, squash, 
beans, peas, nuts; ripe olives; onions and other bulbs; potatoes, beets, carrots, 
and piece of squash ; small quantities of iodin, ether, nitric acid. 

Composition of Foods. 

"Water and mineral matter. — Weigh a small portion of a vegetable, slice thin 
or grate it, and spread on a shallow dish and set in the oven with the door open 
or on the back of the stove, or put the sections in the upper part of a double 
boiler and leave uncovered, or spread in the sunlight in a current of air. 
Weigh after 1 hour and again after 24 hours. Also soak dried fruit or vege- 
tables, measuring and weighing before and after soaking and estimating per- 
centage of water absorbed. Burn any vegetable substance on a clean surface 
which can be made very hot; the ash left after all charcoal disappears is the 
mineral matter. Small tin covers are convenient for this purpose. 

Weigh a potato; bake it, and weigh again after baking; put in the oven and 
allow it to turn to charcoal, and weigh again; then burn the charcoal in a 
crucible and weigh the ash, and compare approximately with the original 
weight of the potato. 

Fat. — Crush nuts or bruise ripe olives or mustard seeds on blotting paper. 

Put some peanut butler in a piece of cheesecloth and leave in the oven or in 
a water bottle until the warm oil separates. 

If an equal volume of ether is added to ground flaxseed or peanuts and 
allowed to stand a short time. 10 minutes or more, the fat is dissolved with the 
ether. It may then be filtered and the liquid left in a draft of air until the 
ether evaporates and the fat remains. Great care must ho <>>:oreised in the 
use of ether, as it is very volatile and inflammable. Do not use it near a fire 
or lighted lamp. 

Protein. — Heat split peas in the water in which they have soaked for 2-1 
hours or more. Gather the white froth which rises and test that and some of 
the water with dilute nitric acid. Such substances become yellow when the 
nitric acid is added and the whole is heated. Treat some egg white or milk in 
the same way for comparison. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



20 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

A still simpler though less certain test for protein or albuminous substances 
is the unpleasant smell given off by all materials containing them when burned. 
Burned milk or eggs have a well-known odor, and plants or seeds, such as beans 
and peas, burn with much the same smell. 

Starch. — From ground peas or beans or grated potato starch may be washed 
out as from flour, through a coarse cloth or fine wire strainer. This may he 
dried and compared with commercial starch or cooked and tested with iodin. 
(Reference Nos. 34, p. 25; 81, pp. 53-57.) See also experiments under Lesson 5, 
page 43. (Reference Nos. 71, pp. 54, 59, 62; 72. pp. 60-02, 236, 237.) 

Sugar. — Evaporate water in which carrots, beets, or squash have been boiled. 
Test it by tasting when it becomes a thick sirup. 

Evaporate further until it burns and compare the odor with the result from 
burning sugar. 

Germination Tests with Seeds, etc. 

(Reference No. 79, chap. 1.) 

Have some squash seed soaked for 24 hours or longer. Plant some of them 
and examine one or more each succeeding lesson. Split open some of the soaked 
seeds and find the seed leaves and embryo plant. Soak other seeds and compare 
with the first ones after the leaves begin to unfurl. 

Try similar experiments with other large seeds, like peas or kidney or Lima 
beans. (Reference No. 99.) 

In the same manner experiment with sprouting potatoes or onions. These 
may be put in earth or in a glass of water or even wrapped in moist cloth or 
paper. Notice the changes from clay to day and the gradual shrinking of tuber 
or bulb as the sprouts develop; estimate loss of substance. Keep some away 
from the light and others in bright sunshine. 

Cut the green top from a carrot and put the cut surface in a glass of water 
and place in the sunlight and in a few days small leaves will appear. 

Another interesting experiment is the extraction of chlorophyll. (Reference 
No. 80, p. 287.) 

Chop raw spinach fine, press in a cloth, then heat the juice extracted. Dip 
or strain the extract from the water and combine with sugar to preserve it. 
The green coloring matter thus obtained may be reserved for tinting candies 
and ice cream. If cooked too long it loses its vivid green. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, FIRST LECTURE. 

1. Give different methods of classifying plants. 

2. Mention five of the principal plant families and some members of each. 

3. Describe the structure of some typical plant. 

4. What is cellulose? What of its food value? 

5. What proportion of average plants is utilized for food? Hive examples. 

6. Report your personal observation and experiments in the germination <>f 
plants. 

7. Describe the principal nutritive substances derived from plants. 

S. How may the presence of each one of these substances be recognized? 

9. Tell something of the source and changes produced by cultivation of three 
plant foods. 

10. What part has women had in the development of such foods? 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

SECOND LECTURE— LEAVES AND STALKS. 
USE OF RAW VEGETABLES. 

It seems logical to begin our study with plants or parts of plants 
that may be eaten raw. Fresh, green vegetables are generally rel- 
ished and form a part of the diet wherever they can be obtained, 
and many of those which are most prized are eaten without cooking, 
as they were by primitive man. Such vegetables may be called salad 
plants, though it is difficult to classify plants according to the uses 
to which they are put, for almost all are used for many different 
purposes. Lettuce, for example, a vegetable which in this country 
is most always eaten raw, in Europe is often cooked, and thus it be- 
comes a potherb as well as a salad plant. Water cress, though often 
used* as a. salad, is sometimes used simply as a condiment Peas, 
beans, potatoes, and vegetables such as spinach, which are most com- 
monly served as a "vegetable," are often put into salads. In spite 
of these difficulties in the way of classification, we may include under 
salad plants those whose leaves and stems are usually eaten raw with 
a sour dressing, and define a salad as a dish consisting in whole or in 
part of vegetables, either raw or cooked, mixed with a sour dressing. 
Salad dressing usually contains a fat as well as an acid. 

The use and cultivation of salad plants go far back into ancient his- 
tory. These foods are valuable not only because their freshness and 
attractive appearance arouse an appetite for the more substantial 
materials served with them, but because in this shape we get all their 
mineral constituents, which are liable to be lost in part or perhaps 
rendered less useful by cooking. Hence the desire for such foods 
should be considered to represent a real need, and raw salad plants 
should be supplied freely in all dietaries. " Spring bitters," on which 
the housewives of earlier days set so much store, are more palatable 
when obtained from salads than from medicine bottles; and, setting 
aside any question of medicinal value and all that pertains to it. such 
plants without any doubt help to make the diet attractive and to give 
a relish to food, particularly in the spring, when one is weary of the 
limited variety of winter foods. 

Housekeepers often claim to know and care little about salads, bui 
those who dig wild Jerusalem artichokes in the spring or start the 
early peppergrass or radish to serve as relishes at the table are pro- 

[Vegetable Foods. I'.ul. 1U.V] 



22 LEAVES AND, STALKS. 

viding salads for their families ; or again, those who prepare the cold 
vegetables left at noon, such as " greens," with a dressing even of 
salt and vinegar for supper, make salads. Fresh cucumbers with 
vinegar or other dressing are salads just as much as are the more 
elaborate dishes. The derivation of the word salad shows it to mean 
a food to be eaten with salt. 

It would be better to keep near to this original meaning rather 
than to go to the extreme of some housekeepers who, in their search 
for novelties for their tables, build up salads from strange combina- 
tions in ornate forms. 

The distinctive salad plants are very succulent; that is, they con- 
sist mainly of water. Hence, they are especially refreshing in warm 
weather. As a separate course they are a pleasant contrast to the 
heavier dishes of a formal meal. They also serve to prevent too 
great concentration of food, and thus aid in the digestive process. 
Upon the valuable saline properties of these raw plants we are just 
beginning to place a definite value, though evidently these were recog- 
nized by the instinct of the people of the far past, (Reference Nos. 
33 and 36.) 

Fat is a compact food and, weight for weight, is about two and a 
quarter times as valuable as protein or carbohydrate for fuel in the 
human body. (Reference No. 7, p. 12.) A tablespoonful of oil 
would go farther toward supplying energy for keeping the human 
machinery running than a large head of lettuce. Over all the world 
people have instinctively added a condensed dressing consisting 
mainly of oil, bacon fat, or cream to the salad plants bulky with 
cellular tissue and water, and have eaten such salads with meat and 
bread supplying protein and carbohydrate, and thus have secured a 
fairly balanced ration. 

The use of salad plants and salads as decorations on the dining 
table deserves consideration. Beware of unattractive combinations 
of color, however, such as beet with tomato, etc. (Reference Nos. 84, 
ch. 28; 93.) 

Modern study of bacteriology indicates that pagan and religious 
ceremonies of purification by fire and water had definite value for 
healthful life in this world. Water .cleanses to some extent, but 
only through intense or long-continued heat is complete sterilization 
and freedom from bacteria and parasites secured. Therefore groat 
care is needed in the selection and preparation of foods which are not 
to be subjected to heat. Cress, lettuce, and other salad plants, care- 
lessly cultivated and handled in the market and half cleaned in the 
kitchen, may transmit disease, as may milk, raw oysters, and other 
animal foods. (Reference Nos. 28, pp. 1-13; 61, p. 115; 97, p. 284.) 

The fashion of cutting across a head of lettuce or celery, though 
it may give each person a fair share of the choice and less tender por- 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 243.] 



LEAVES AND STALKS. 23 

tions, can not be recommended, because it is practically impossible 
to cleanse the ax'ls of the leaves, the grooves where they join the 
stem. All such piants should be separated in their natural divisions 
and washed in more than one water, individual attention being given 
to hollows in stalks or leaves. Sand is unpleasant, but less harmful 
than other things that may be left behind after washing; its pres- 
ence, however, justifies the suspicion that the washing was not 
thorough or carefully done. Vegetables such as spinach, which are 
difficult to free from grit, should be washed in a number of waters, 
and lifted out of the pan each time in loose handfuls before the water 
has been drained off. In this way the sand and grit has an oppor- 
tunity to sink to the bottom of the pan and can be rinsed out. If the 
water is poured from the pan while the vegetables are in it, part of 
the sand at least is again distributed over the washed leaves. 

Green vegetables should always be looked over carefully to make 
sure that any inferior portions, insects, or other things which are 
undesirable are removed. The quality of vegetables may be greatly 
injured by insect pests and plant diseases. If the plant suffers very 
severely from such enemies, it can not make normal growth, and so 
all or parts of it may be inferior. For instance, green peas or string 
beans from vines badly attacked by insects or by some fungus dis- 
ease do not attain full perfection. Obviously, leaves used as greens 
are of inferior quality if worm-eaten. Insect pests and plant diseases 
can often be controlled by the use of insecticides and in similar ways. 
(Reference No. 55.) If such things are used there is all the more 
reason for washing vegetables thoroughly before preparing them for 
the table, to remove any hellebore, copper salts, or other substance 
used in treating the plant, which may adhere to it. Salt in the water 
will aid in drawing out parasites if they happen to be present. There 
is distinct advantage in washing all salad plants in running water, 
especially for the removal of insects from lettuce. After washing 
several times and removing imperfections, salad plants may be kept in 
a cool place like a cellar or refrigerator for some hours or even a day 
before using. After draining off the last water, wrap the leaves or 
stalks in a cloth or put in a clean paper bag; this is more effective 
than keeping them in water. (Reference No. 28, p. 39.) 

During the cleaning process it is advisable to sort out the coarsest 
portions to add to soup materials; the next best may not be attractive 
to serve by themselves, but can be cut or shredded for combination 
with other materials, while the best of all — the heart of the cabbage, 
celery, or lettuce — should be served in the Least elaborate way with 
salt or a simple dressing. 

No plan for serving salads should be encouraged which leads to 
a waste of food material. If it is desired t<> use the outer portion of 
a cabbage for a salad bowl (Reference No. TO. p. 293), any adhering 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



24 LEAVES AND STALKS. 

dressing may afterwards be washed off and the cabbage used for a 
scallop or soup. The outer leaves of lettuce may be cooked for 
greens or soup. 

Many materials may be combined with the cabbage, celery, and 
lettuce — raw ajDples, radishes, or even canned fruit, such as pears cut 
in slices or cubes. Lettuce is generally recognized in this country as 
the main dependence for salad by itself and in combination with 
other foods. There are many varieties, adapted to different condi- 
tions, but all may be classed under two general heads — the cabbage 
lettuce, where the heads are solid and compact, and the cos lettuce, 
where the leaves are long and loose and less delicate than those of the 
other tjrpe. Eomaine is an example of cos lettuce. There are also 
varieties with blanched centers and curly varieties with dark-tinged 
leaves. 

Chicory may be cultivated for salad, and is more desirable when 
blanched. Endive, which is very nearly related to chicory, is another 
useful salad plant. The corn salad or lamb's lettuce is a small plant 
often found in city markets. Sorrel, wild and cultivated, some young 
and tender seaweeds, and many mild-flavored plants or weeds may 
be used as raw salads. Others are better for partial cooking, even 
if served cold as salads. (Reference Nos. 18, p. 33; 73, p. 151.) 

Celery in its wild state is an unpromising if not harmful vegetable : 
by cultivation, and especialty by blanching its leafstalks, it has been 
made a popular salad plant, and has been thought to have certain 
medicinal virtues. The fibrous outer stalks and larger white leaves 
of a bunch of celery should be reserved for soup making. Some of 
the larger stalks, too stringy to serve whole, may be used in salads if 
cut in quarter-inch slices, or if too tough for that, may be cooked 
after cutting and added to soups or served with white sauce or toast. 
The tender inner stalks should be served plain to eat with salt. Some- 
times the groove in the stalk is filled with prepared cheese. The 
center of the root is a delicate morsel. Leaves and root may be dried 
to flavor future soups. (Reference Xo. 20.) 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK. SECOND LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — Any available salad plants, sneh as chicory, chives, endive, 
escarole, mustard, parsley, peppergrass, radish, romaine, water cress, as many 
types as possible. If only lettuce or celery can be secured, have one root for 
each pupil. Cabbage, apples, cucumbers, etc.. may also be used. For salad 
dressings provide olive oil. sour cream, peanut butter, eggs, bacon Cat, lemon 
juice, vinegar, and other seasoning materials, according to the recipes to be 
chosen from these at the end of this section. 

Excursion. — If feasible, visit markets, farms, or gardens, or gather wild 
plants. Learn to recognize different kinds and test their merits as raw foods, 
alone or with various dressings. At the same time secure other plants to 
illustrate this and the following lesson. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



LEAVES AND STALKS. 25 

Lettuce. 

Weigh head of lettuce with the roots and all, if possible. Remove inedible 
portions and weigh again. Divide into lots, according to quality; weigh or 
estimate the percentage of refuse and relative values of each portion. (Refer- 
ence Nos. 7, p. 11 ; 30. ) Estimate cost per calorie. Pull apart and wash each 
section thoroughly, dry on a cloth without bruising, then arrange the lettuce in 
a salad bowl as nearly as possible as it grew, the larger perfect leaves outside 
and the tender ones in the center. Imperfect leaves when not decayed may be 
rolled or folded and cut in shreds or ribbons for other salads. 

Celery. 

In the same way clean, weigh, or estimate values of all parts of celery, in- 
cluding the root. Reserve for use in soup stock in some succeeding lesson (5 
or 11) tough stalks and portions of the root and coarser white leaves. The 
tough outer fiber sometimes may be pulled or scraped off. For fringed celery 
see Reference Nos. 75, p. 120 ; 76, p. 35. Sort celery like lettuce, reserving ten- 
derest portions to serve in simplest form. If there are enough of the, tender 
white leaves, cut them for greens. The coarse, bright-green leaves have stronger 
flavor. Cut the coarser stalks across the grain in quarter-inch slices. A large 
stalk first may be cut in several strips. Let these stand in a French dressing 
for an hour or more, then combine with other material or fill into a hollowed 
apple or tomato to serve to each individual. Sections of cabbage or cucumber 
may be used in this way when celery is not available. 

Cabbage. 

Cut a portion of the stem from a cabbage, put the cabbage in a dish of water, 
and cover with a cloth. In 24 hours it will be much crisper, having ab- 
sorbed water like any withered plant. Take a small light-weight cabbage, turn 
back the leaves, and compare with a head of lettuce. Compare with a cabbage 
of similar size, but weighing twice as inuch as the first. Cut a cabbage in 
quarters, take out the inner third of each section and serve as a salad. Some- 
times the inner cabbage leaves are tender enough to serve whole like lettuce, 
but usually they should be shaved with a knife or vegetable cutter or chopped. 
The coarser outer cabbage leaves may be reserved for the succeeding lessons, for 
soup, or scalloped cabbage. 

Salads and Salad Dressings. 
(Reference Nos. IS, p. 23; 69, pp. 309-314: 73. pp. 100-103; 76, p. 350; 93.) 

Various salad dressings may be made in this lesson and some reserved in 
glass jars for future lessons. The cooked dressings may be taken up later. In 
tbis lesson prepare the simplest types, like the following: 

French dressing: To each tablespoonful of olive oil add a few grains of pepper 
and a little salt, blend thoroughly, and then add slowly one teaspoonful of lemon 
juice or vinegar. Cottonseed oil may be used in the same way. 

Nut dressing: Dilute peanut or other nut butter with lemon Juice and \ inegar 
and a little water. Season with salt and pepper. 

Cream dressing: Heat thick cream, sweet or sour, with an egg boater until 
stiff. Season with salt, pepper, and lemon juice or vinegar. Continue the beat- 
ing while gradually adding the add. 
[Vegetable Foods. Bui. 245.] 



26 LEAVES AND STALKS. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, SECOND LECTURE. 

1. Mention five plants commonly eaten raw. 

2. What of the possible medicinal value of raw foods of this kind? 

3. What food materials are most abundant in salad plants'? What do they 
lack? 

4. Mention special characteristics and describe the preparation of three of 
the most common salad plants. 

5. Give reasons for special attention to cleansing such materials. 

6. How may these leaves and stalks be kept in good condition for tbe table 
from one day to another? 

7. Why are oils or other fats usually combiued witb such plaut foods? 

8. Give directions for dressing a salad with olive oil. 

9. What are the usual ingredients in a cooked salad dressing? -Give reason 
for the use of each. 

10. Of what value are the decorative possibilities of a salad? 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS, 

THIRD LECTURE— LEAVES AND STALKS— Continued. 

Closely associated with the plants that are eaten raw are a host of 
leaves and stalks commonly cooked and served under the general 
name " potherbs " or " greens." This old term indicates the instinct 
of primitive people to seize upon the first green tips that appear in 
the spring for food. These must have been very welcome after the 
winter struggle for game, grains, roots, and nuts, if indeed the nomad 
tribes were fortunate enough to have so much. Notwithstanding 
the low fuel value of such foods the discerning housewife, even when 
dependent upon the high prices of city markets, recognizes the 
necessity of supplying her family bountifully with this type of food 
in the early spring. A wide variety of plants are usable in this way. 
Many wild ones are available, and some are cultivated especially 
for this purpose. Others are by-products; for example, the small 
beet plants which are thinned out in the home garden. 

WILD PLAXTS USED AS POTHERBS. 

A double purpose may be accomplished in the country home by the 
use of such wild greens, namely, freeing the grounds from weeds and 
providing food. Among the wild plants which have been used in 
this way are the following : 

The common dandelion is cut close to the ground before the flower 
bud has expanded. "When it is desired to root out the plant from a 
lawn, the entire root must be dug up ; if simply the top is cut off, the 
dandelion grows again and in a larger head. The slightly bitter 
flavor is not disagreeable. The roots furnish a bitter extract often 
used medicinally, particularly in the domestic medicine of early 
times. When cultivated, the dandelion is milder and more tender, 
and may be used as salad, as may the very young wild plant, or 
dandelions blanched by covering them for a few days. (Reference 
No. 10, p. 18.) 

The milkweed, mi when less than G inches high before its leaves 
have fairly unfolded from the stalk, is considered almosl equal to 
asparagus, and may be used to extend a scanty supply of the latter. 

The sum- sorrels, so abundant on poor soil, may be added to soups 
or salad-, and the Larger Leaves of the cultivated imported varieties 
make excellent greens. 

[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 245.] 



28 LEAVES AND STALKS. 

The chicory, which is a common weed in many places, furnishes 
excellent greens, much like the dandelion, only rather more bitter. 
They are better if blanched by covering the plant with an empty 
flower pot or in some similar way. A plant nearly related to chic- 
ory, carefully grown and blanched, is the " endive " of the market 
gardeners. 

The cowslip or marsh marigold is sufficiently abundant in some 
regions to serve as a food plant, and is prepared like spinach or other 
greens. 

Poke sprouts are a favorite potherb in some regions of the Southern 
States and are on sale in the spring in "Washington, D. C, and other 
southern cities. The young shoots are cooked and served like 
asparagus. 

Purslane is one of the most common weeds now, yet in remote ages 
it appears to have been cultivated as a potherb and to have been 
brought from the East to Europe as a salad plant. It is best when 
well developed, but just before it blossoms, and should be cut at the 
surface of the ground without the roots. But little time is required 
for cooking its succulent, red, branching stems, which provide after 
cooking a dish closely resembling beet greens in flavor. 

Pigweed or goosefoot or lambVquarters, shepherd's-purse, and 
similar weeds are used in this fashion. Experiments with wild plants 
should not be tried unless one is sure that the plant is not poisonous. 

CULTIVATED POTHERBS OR GBEENS. 

Of the plants cultivated especially for greens, asparagus, which 
Charles Lamb said "seems to inspire gentle thought-." is a general 
favorite. This is a member of the lily family akin to the lily of the 
valley. Many an asparagus bed does good service unto the second 
and third generation of owners (one in England is known to be over 
90 years old), and it is strange that any farm should lack this long- 
lived, easily cultivated delicacy. (Reference Nos. 18, pp. 17, 18; 75, 
p. 140.) 

Spinach is a favorite form of greens and is seen in city markets 
most of the year. A French proverb calls it the "broom of the 
stomach," and it appears to be richer in iron than most common 
foods. (Reference No. 33.) The tenderest leaves may be served raw 
as a salad. 

Beets are rarely raised especially for greens, but surplus plants are 
reserved for this purpose. These are often eaten when very small 
The tops of the early bunch beets brought to the city markets may 
often be used as greens, even when the stalk ami leaf are 6 or 8 inches 
long. Swiss chard is a variety of the beet plant with thick leaf 
stems and is raised especially for greens. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



LEAVES AND STALKS. 29 

Carrot tops are sometimes used as a potherb, but are too fibrous 
unless very young. It should be remembered that some of the same 
family (the Umbelliferse) are poisonous. Turnip tops are also used 
in this fashion, and resemble kale. Alfalfa tops are said to make 
satisfactory greens. Pumpkin tops also are sometimes used in this 
way. 

Hop sprouts are seen in the Belgian markets in March and April 
and are even canned and exported. Car© is taken to cut the sprouts 
so as not to interfere with the later growth of the vines. 

The Japanese use young shoots of burdock cooked. They are 
better if blanched with earth for a few days before cutting. Then 
they should be parboiled, drained, and cooked again until tender, 
and served warm or cold with a salad dressing. Udo is another 
Japanese salad plant which is being tried in this country. (Refer- 
ence No. 44.) 

Fennel is used as a culinary vegetable in Europe and occasionally 
in this country. The leafstalk is thick and swollen toward the root, 
and thus becomes united almost like a bulb. It is used as a salad or 
for greens; the finely divided leaves may be cooked like spinach, 
while the stalks may be cut in sections, cooked, and served with white 
sauce like celery. 

American housewives realize less commonly than those of Europe 
that lettuce makes excellent " greens." This, as mentioned above, 
suggests a good way to use the tougher or outer leaves of the lettuce 
bought for salad and the surplus crop of the home garden. As is 
the case with all potherbs, lettuce should not be overcooked. (Ref- 
erence No. 87, p. 29.) 

The cabbage tribe, belonging to the Cruciferae, supplies many types 
of vegetables used as potherbs, and is said to contain no harmful 
members. (Reference No.- 86, p. 180.) The original wild type was 
the Brassica oleracea.' The group of plants now include the white, 
red, or purple, and Savoy cabbages, coleworts, borecole or Scotch 
kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and others. Their growth is luxuriant 
and a variety of forms has been developed. 

The swollen stem of the kohl-rabi is one type of development, and 
another is the stalk surrounded by buds known as Brussels sprouts. 
The cauliflower (Reference Nos. 18, pp. 15-16; 69, p. 301) usually 
considered the most digestible of the tribe, owes its delicacy to un- 
developed flower buds; broccoli is similar in form but hardly equal 
in quality. 

Collards or coleworts are also similar to cabbage, having long, 
loose leaves. (Reference No. 75, p. 116.) They grow where the 
weather is not cold enough for cabbages to head. 

Kale consists of curly, open leaves not forming a compact head. 
The blanched shoots of sea kale are prepared like asparagus and the 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



30 LEAVES AND STALKS. 

flower heads also are used. (Reference No. 18, pp. 1(>— IT.) The 
sprouts from cabbage stalks left in the ground over winter may be 
used in the same way. 

The Chinese cabbage, pak-tsai, is being tried in this country and 
gives promise of becoming adapted to our conditions and being a 
useful potherb. 

Some of the cabbage tribe may be used raw when young and 
tender as salads, and have long been regarded as valuable prevent- 
ives against scurvy. 

Often when this type of plants is cooked an unpleasant odor and 
flavor is developed. This is obviated in large measure by cooking 
uncovered and in an abundance of water. (Reference No. 18, p. 13.) 
It is also important that such vegetables shall not be cooked too long. 
Once it was considered necessary to cook cabbage several hours, but 
a young cabbage may be made perfectly tender in 20 minutes and an 
older one will not take twice as long. The old idea that cabbage 
was indigestible was due to its being overcooked. 

When cabbage or cauliflower begin to grow darker in color in 
cooking, changes caused by lack of ventilation and too long cooking 
are taking place. Such plants are therefore less satisfactory if pre- 
pared in the steam cooker than when cooked in an abundance of 
water. 

Rhubarb is another plant in which the leafstalks are the useful 
portion, though it may from its use be classed as a fruit rather than 
as a vegetable. The various acids and other flavors it contains are 
acceptable in the early spring when it is at its best. Later in the 
season, when the stalks are tough and fibrous, the juice may be ex- 
tracted for jelly making. Because it contains some oxalic acid the 
use of rhubarb is frequently forbidden to persons of gouty tendencies. 

SEAWEEDS. 

Several varieties of seaweeds are used as foods in different parts 
of the world, sometimes for flavor or supposed medicinal value and 
sometimes in place of gelatin. 

Dulce is sometimes eaten raw as a salad and because of the iodin 
it contains has enjoj^ed much reputation as a medicinal plant. (Ref- 
erence No. 86, p. 187.) 

Irish moss or carrageen is a variety of dulce. Its greenish purple 
tint fades out as it dries on the beach. Though of slight food value, 
since more than half its substance is a kind of mucilage which the 
body does not assimilate, it has long been used like gelatin; its use 
for the stiffening of blanc mange, etc., was formerly more general 
than at present. (Reference No. 73, p. 164.) Iceland moss is a kind 
of lichen used to stiffen desserts, etc., and is supposed to have a 
soothing effect in cases of irritated throats. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



LEAVES AND STALKS. 31 

Agar, or Ceylon moss, a seaweed from the Indian Ocean, is much 
used as a culture medium in biological laboratories, and is also used 
by many cooks in place of gelatin of animal origin. (Reference 
No. 75, p. 222.) 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, THIRD LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — Different greens according to season, such as spinach, cab- 
bage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, canned asparagus; also butter, eggs, and 
salad dressing. A quart of Brussels sprouts and a peck of each of the green 
vegetables are convenient amounts. 

Utensils. — Saucepans for boiling vegetables, pans for washing, knives, colan- 
der, chopping bowl, and chopping knife. 

The first step in the preparation of all these plants is thorough cleansing, for 
though the boiling process might render invisible dirt harmless (Reference No. 
28, p. 13), sand is particularly obnoxious in greens. 

The best plan is to sort and trim off all old or imperfect portions, then wash 
leaf by leaf and float in several waters in order that all solid particles may 
settle to the bottom of the pan. 

Preparation and Cooking of Potherbs and Similar Vegetables. 

Exercise 1. — Let each pupil weigh, trim, and wash several roots of spinach; 
weigh refuse, estimate the percentage of loss. Cook in" little salted water ap- 
proximately 30 minutes, or till tender. Let this be done individually, and the 
amount of sand be noted. Drain, measure the leaves, and compare with orig- 
inal bulk. (Reference Nos. 18, p. 17-18; 70, pp. 299-300; 75, p. 140.) 

Let each pupil prepare some one of the following and all results be compared : 

(1) Cook spinach in its own juice, in covered saucepan. 

(2) Cook in considerable water uncovered. 
Serve 1 and 2 plain and compare their flavor. 

(3) After cooking, drain, chop, rub through sieve, reheat, add a little cream 
or white sauce. 

(4) Mold in cups, garnish with egg rubbed through strainer. 

(5) Cream of spinach soup; prepare spinach as in exercise 3; then dilute to 
desired consistency with milk. 

Exercise 2. — While the spinach is cooking each member of the class may be 
given a different kind of plant, if as many are obtainable. 

The preliminary preparation should be similar to that of raw salad plants 
or spinach ; remove all dirt, decayed portions, etc. 

Sort out tougher portions and give them longer application of heat; when 
they are partially cooked, add the tender parts. 

So far as possible cook most vegetables uncovered in sufficient boiling water 
to prevent all danger of burning. The water should bubble. 

Exercise S. — If possible provide one pupil with a few Brussels sprouts, one 
with cabbage, one with cauliflower, etc.: in this way small quantities will 
serve for the class and all varieties may be cooked at the same time. 

Such plants should be soaked head down in cold sa!t<Nl water before cooking. 
(Reference No. 18, p; 9.) 

Use center of cabbage for salad, outside for boiling. Serve boiled cabbage in 
the following ways: 

(1) Plain with butter. 

(2) With oil and vinegar. 

(3) Willi white sauce. 

(4) With white sauce and eninihs. i Reference No. 73, p. 150.) 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 246.] 



32 LEAVES AND STALKS. 

(5) With white sauce, crumbs, and cheese. 

(6) With sausage. (Reference No. 18, p. 14.) 

(7) With potatoes (kolcannon). (Reference No. 18, p. 15.) 

(8) German cabbage. (Reference No. 73, p. 150.) 

Exercise 4- — Supply each member of the class with a different " green " if 



The preliminary preparation should be similar to that for the raw salad 
plants. Even if all is to be cooked it is desirable to sort out the tougher parts 
and give them a blanching (Refereuce No. 18, pp. 10-11), or parboiling before 
combining with the tenderer portions. 

Let each vegetable cook uncovered in sufficient boiling, salted water to pre- 
vent any danger of burning (with the exception of spinach in its own juices, 
which must be covered). 

Adopt a small standard portion suitable for one serving per person — 2 ounces 
or one-fourth cup is a fair average — estimate cost, including original cost, labor, 
and cost of additions. Compare with cost of canned vegetables. 

Observe the constant tendency to add to such plants the protein, fat, etc., 
which they lack by combining with them milk, butter, eggs, and salad dressings. 

When few fresh greens are available, use canned asparagus. Remove from can, 
taste of liquid, and reserve it if the flavor is good. The stalks may be reheated 
and served on toast. Or tips may be served for salad with French dressing, and 
the stalks used for cream of asparagus soup. (Reference No. 73, p. 77.) Split 
open stalks, add liquid from can if suitable, heat, rub all possible through coarse 
strainer, add milk, thicken and flavor. 

In each case work out the cost of material in city and in country, and add 
the labor of preparation. Note the advantage in the country in the use of such 
by-products or weeds as thinned-out best greens or purslane. 

Irish moss blanc mange may fitly form a part of this lesson. (Reference No. 
73, p. 164.) The whole moss is preferable to the sea-moss farina. 

Stewed pieplant or rhubard will also illustrate use of leafstalks as food. 
(Reference No. 73, p. 15.) 

This lesson may be carried out in the preparation of a luncheon or simple 
dinner with either of these menus-: 



No. 1. 
Cream of asparagus soup. 
Spinach and eggs. 
Creamed cabbage with cheese. 
Stewed rhubarb. 



No. 2. 
Cream of celery soup. 
Asparagus on toast. 
Kolcannon (potato and cabbage). 
Blanc mange. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS, THIRD LECTURE. 

1. Explain the terms " greens," " potherbs." 

2. How divide plants that part may be used for salads, part as greens, or in 
other ways? 

3. Give general directions for choosing, cleaning, and cooking dandelion 
greens. 

4. Give a list of wild plants in your vicinity suitable for this purpose. How 
many have you tried? 

5. Explain the shrinkage common with such foods. 

6. Why is fat meat often cooked with plants of this type? 

7. Give general directions for cooking cabbage or cauliflower. 

8. How many asparagus beds in your neighborhood? Give method of pre- 
paring canned asparagus. 

9. What reasons for use of white sauce with cooked cabbage, celery, etc.? 

10. Give directions for making white sauce. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS, 

FOURTH LECTURE— BULBS. 
THE ONION TRIBE. * 

Next to leaves and stalks we may study bulbs, which may in a way 
be considered as a form between stems and roots. 

Bulbs are a kind of bud, spheroidal in shape, and from the botan- 
ist's standpoint consist of a cluster of leaves, modified in form and 
tightly folded together, one over the other. Usually they form above 
or just below the top of the ground. In some cases the young bulb- 
lets appear in the axils of the leaves (tiger lily) or at the blossom, 
as in top onions. 

Such bulbs are characteristic of the lily family, which includes 
some of the most ornamental plants of the flower garden — hyacinths, 
lilies, narcissus, and tulips, for example. 

The American Indians used certain wild lilies as food, and the 
bulbs of some garden lilies are eaten in Japan and China and are 
also sold in Chinese shops in American cities. In American homes 
the lily bulb had some use in olden times for medicinal purposes. 

From the culinary viewpoint, however, the Allium tribe of the 
lily family includes the most important of the bulbous plants, namely, 
the onion and some of its relatives. 

The derivation of the word " onion " is significant, indicating the 
oneness of the bulb or close union of the underground stems. The 
onion appears to have been a native of Asia and to have been used 
by the human race from the most ancient times. It is mentioned in 
the Bible and in old Egyptian writings. (Reference Nos. 87, pp. 
10G-107; 100, pp. 223-226.) 

No one seems ready to say what is the special virtue derived from 
plants of the onion race, but most dietitians agree that it is wise to 
serve them frequently either raw or cooked. 

Onions owe their flavor to a volatile, oil-like compound containing 
sulphur, which has been carefully studied by chemists. They are very 
succulent, but nevertheless supply some nutritive material, chiefly 
carbohydrates, as is the rase with most succulent vegetables. 

There is a large variety of onions (Allium <■ pa) available, and all 
of them arc useful in turn. Many varieties are grown by American 
farmers and gardeners, and the crop is a very important one and sup- 
plies the bulk of the onions found in our markets, 

1 i: 579°— Bull. 24.".— 12 3 33 

I Wjietable Foods, Bui. 246.] 



34 BULBS. 

The tiny pearl and button onions are convenient for salads or 
pickles or for the hint of flavor wanted where a large onion would be 
far too much. 

From the Bermudas and the South in the early spring come flat, 
crisp onions of a purplish tint which are appetizing either r;i\v or 
cooked, and more agreeable in texture than the coarser varieties 
commonly raised for the winter market. The large Spanish onions 
are mild and tender, suitable for salad or cooking purposes. The 
white-skinned Egyptian onions are usually a satisfactory variety. 
There are many onions in the market which are strong in flavor and 
tough, and justify the prejudice which the undiscriminating have 
against all onions. In general, the greenish yellow and red types of 
onion, owing to their texture and flavor, are less satisfactory for 
cooking as a vegetable than those of lighter hue. 

Garlic is of interest in the study of bulbs, even to those who may 
not like its flavor. Each bulbous root or stalk is a compound made 
up of several smaller bulblets, each of which is known as a clove of 
garlic, clove signifying the cleavage or splitting of the larger group. 
This plant, like other members of the onion race, has been used in 
cookery from the earliest times ; and its use is especially common 
among the Latin races in southern Europe. Rightly used and in 
small quantities garlic is considered a desirable seasoning by most 
trained cooks. A salad may be flavored by rubbing the dish with 
the cut surface of a clove of garlic. The oil of garlic, which gives 
it its flavor (Reference No. 86, p. 183), is composed mainly of allyl 
sulphid, a substance common to all the onion family — asafetida, 
radishes, cress, mustard, etc. 

The leek is another useful plant of the same race. The bulbous 
portion is much elongated, cylindrical rather than spherical, and 
the leaves are long and flat and sheathed over each other. In culti- 
vation the lower part of the leafy part of the leek is blanched, like 
celery, for several inches. This plant also was known to the Egyp- 
tians, Greeks, and Romans, and is the national emblem. of the Welsh. 

To cook leeks remove the fine roots and green ends of the leaves 
and cut the white portion in 3-inch lengths. Wash and cook in boil- 
ing water until tender; that is, for 20 minutes or more. Serve on 
buttered toast like asparagus or with white sauce. The stock-, if 
too thick, may be split and flattened after cooking. The water in 
which leeks are cooked may be used in soups. Closely related species 
called wild leek or wild garlic grow in some parts of this country and 
are liable to flavor the milk and butter of cows that eat them in the 
pasture. Wild leek is sometimes used as a seasoning. The shallot 
is a cultivated plant similar to the leek, but with a tubular leaf. 

Ordinary young onions are often sold under the name of " scullion " 
or " scallion," which properly belongs to any thick-necked or un- 

[Vegetable Foods. Rul. 245.] 



BULBS. 35 

developed bulb of the onion tribe which has not grown round, but 
more nearly resembles the leek in shape, In onion beds these are 
pulled out and marketed when young, or they may be grown from 
the bulbs of the previous year. The name is derived from Ascalon in 
Syria and belongs especially to the shallot, which is also known as 
cibol or eschalot by the French and which is a dwarf onion resembling 
the leek in that it has no distinct bulb and has tubelike leaves. 

Chive is a perennial of this same race, the leaves of which have 
a delicate, appetizing flavor frequently relished by those who object 
to the stronger onion flavors. Chives are sometimes used as a border 
plant in flower gardens, having an attractive blue blossom. A clump 
of these tiny bulbs will grow for weeks in the house; if they are 
planted in a dish of mixed ferns the peculiar shade of green in their 
leaves will make an attractive combination with the other plants, 
and the fine stalks may be cut as needed to flavor salads and soups. 
The essential oil is so abundant that a very small quantity of the leaf 
suffices. Onion tops, like the stalks of wild leeks and chives, can also 
be used for flavoring, especially the sprouts that start when the bulbs 
have been kept in a warm room. The young spring onions are some- 
times eaten like radishes as a relish, or cooked and served like 
asparagus, and are a favorite dish. 

Rocambole somewhat resembles leek, and is also called sand kek. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FOURTH LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — Butter or drippings, salt and pepper, milk, egg; one or 
two onions for each pupil, different varieties preferred ; specimens of as many 
of the other members of the Allium tribe as possible. 

Preparation of Onions. 

To prepare onions, peel under water so that the volatile bodies which affect 
the eyes may remain in the water and be kept from scattering. Where the 
onions are especially strong or liable to prove indigestible to anyone, they may 
be put, after peeling, into boiling water, to each quart of which one-fourth 
teaspoon of bicarbonate of soda has been added. After letting them stand in 
this water half an hour, drain and boil in plenty of salted water from i to 2 
hours, according to the nature of the variety in hand, changing the water if 
desirable. 

Often it is wise to take off one or two of the coarser layers next the outside 
skin and reserve them for flavoring soups, while a pari of the tender succulent 
center may be reserved for a salad. This plan of selection corresponds to that 
already suggested for cabbage, celery, lettuce, etc. 

Methods of Cooking. 

The water in which onions are boiled will contain much flavor, and some of it 
may be reserved to flavor soups, either milk or stock. 

Any strong variety of onion is much Improved for the table in spite of loss of 
nutritive value if the water is changed several times during the cooking pn 
Milk may be used as the medium for final cooking. 
[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 245.] 



36 BULBS. 

If onions are cooked uncovered, the odor apparent in the house is less intense, 
and, like cabbage and beans, they are commonly said to be more digestible 
when thus cooked. (Reference No. 18, p. 13.) 

There is a culinary tradition that parsley eaten with onions not only sweetens 
the breath, but counteracts the tendency toward flatulence. 

Securing 1 Onion Flavor. 

The simplest way to extract onion flavor for seasoning salads, etc., is to 
cut a slice from the root end of the bulb and press the cut surface firmly 
against a grater, turning gently until some drops of juice fall. Cut off 
another slice and press the fresh surface again if more flavor is required. 

When the onion is old and has begun to sprout there is little juice to flow 
and more pressure must be used; the soft pulp which passes through the holes 
of the grater will serve instead of the juice. Sometimes with a fresh onion 
the grater is unnecessary, as sufficient juice will follow a few gashes from a 
knife. 

Another way to secure onion flavor is to cook the chopped bulb in water, 
milk, or stock. Slices from which some of the juice has been extracted will 
again yield flavor if cooked in that way. 

A third method is to extract the juice in fat, and for this purpose sliced 
onion is cooked in the fat until light golden brown, or sometimes until very 
brown, thus securing a combination of caramel from the browned sugar and 
the peculiar flavoring bodies of the onion, a flavor quite different from those 
obtained by either of the other methods. The scraps of onion may be strained 
out aiid the flavored fat added to sauce or soup, or they may all be used 
together. 

Onion for forcemeat or stuffing may be prepared in any one of these ways. 
or chopped onion may be blanched or scalded in soda water and then added 
directly. 

A little chopped or finely cut onion may be prepared without soiling the 
fingers by peeling the onion on a fork, cutting off the outer skin, cutting into 
one end in different directions, and then slicing off on a piece of clean paper 
as much as is needed. 

Each pupil may boil two varieties of onion or an onion and a leek and note 
the time required and other points of difference in each. Save the water, 
note color, compare flavor. 

Further exercises follow : 

Spanish Onion. 

Cut an onion in two, reserve small portion of center for salad, parboil 
remainder 10 minutes, save water. Cut onion small, put in saucepan with 1 
tablespoon butter or dripping, a little salt and pepper, cover and cook slowly 
until tender. 

Another method for preparing this dish is as follows: Cut, reserve center, 
cook in water until tender, combine with milk or white sauce. 

Still another method for Spanish onion is: Cook as before in a little water, 
when soft rub onion with water through strainer, add milk, thicken and 
season. Try with further addition of (a) egg, (b) cheese. (Reference No. 73.) 

Onion and Apple Salad. 

Slice centers of Spanish onion very thin. Pile up slices and cut across to 
divide still finer. Combine with twice as much sliced apple. Leave red skins 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



BTJLBS. 37 

on apple as garnish. Add French dressing and chopped parsley or pepper. 
Mayonnaise or cooked dressing may also be used. 

Onion Soup Without Meat. 

French families are fond of an onion soup which is very easily and quickly 
made and very palatable. 

Peel a good-sized onion, cut in small pieces, and cook slowly and carefully 
until tender in a heaping tablespoonful of fat or of butter. Then move the 
saucepan to a hotter part of the stove and cook the onion until well browned, 
stirring all the time to prevent burning. Add a pint and a half of boiling 
water,, or milk and water half-and-half. Season with salt and pepper, bring 
to a boil, and serve poured over a piece of toasted bread, or serve small cubes 
of bread fried in butter. If no milk is used, it is a common custom to serve 
some grated, mild-flavored cheese, such as Swiss cheese, with the soup, which 
may be added to it as desired. 

Fried Onions. 

Fried onions may be prepared in either of two ways: (1) Saute sliced onion 
in olive oil, butter, or other fat until golden brown and tender; or (2) fry a 
few pieces at a time in deep fat, let them remain in the hot fat until they are 
crisp, like Saratoga potatoes,. but do not let them become too brown. (Refer- 
ence No. 70, p. 296.) Use to garnish meats or add to soups, or combine with 
potatoes, stewed beans, or other vegetables. 

Stuffed Onions. 

Parboil large onions, remove centers without breaking other layers, and stuff 
with seasoned crumbs or meat, and bake until tender. 

Onion Custard. 

Cook onions until tender; drain thoroughly. Pour over them a custard mix- 
ture made of one egg, one-half cup milk, salt and pepper to taste, for each 
half pint of onions. Bake gently and serve as a vegetable. In southern Europe 
this dish is popular cooked in a crust, like small custard pies. 

Onion Souffle. 

Chop cooked onion fine or rub through a coarse strainer. Combine with equal 
quantity soft bread crumbs or half as many dry ones. Season with butter, salt, 
and pepper. For each half pint beat in one egg yolk and fold in one stiffly 
beaten while. Put in small dishes or in onion cases and hake gently until firm. 

For making tests of the different food materials in onions, see Reference No. 
79, paws lie- 117. 

REVIEW Q1 KSTIONS, FOURTH LECTURE, 

1. Describe a bulb. Cive examples. 

2. Tell something of the history of the onion. 

■ n .. .Mention and tell Characteristics of other members of the same family of 
plants. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



38 BULBS. 

4. Give general directions for preparation for the table. 

5. When the flavor is objectionable, how may it be reduced? 

6. What portion of an onion would be most acceptable in a salad? 

7. Describe several ways of extracting flavor from the onion for soups, 
salads, etc. 

8. Suggest some method of warming over boiled onions left from one day's 
dinner, so that they may appear in different form. 

9. Is the onion a desirable food? 

10. Tell how to make an onion soup. 

[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

FIFTH LECTURE— TUBERS AND ROOTS. 

During the favorable season some plants store material for future 
growth in enlarged roots or underground stems. From the botanical 
viewpoint it is important to distinguish between true roots, such as 
turnips and beets, and underground stems, such as onion bulbs or 
tubers, of which the common potato is a familiar type, but for the 
present purpose divisions which show their nutritive value are quite 
as important. Nearly all these roots and underground stems contain 
large quantities of water. Sometimes the plant has stored most of its 
food as insoluble starch, which appears in grains throughout the en- 
larged portion of the root or stem, as in potatoes and many tropical 
plants, such as cassava. Such tubers and roots may be roughly 
grouped as starch-bearing ones. On the other hand, some plants, such 
as the beet, store much of their food in the form of soluble carbohy- 
drates (sugar in the case of the beet), which are dissolved in the 
water and give the root a more or less juicy character; these are 
classed as succulent roots. Such distinctions, though rather imper- 
fect, will aid in understanding the nature and food value of the tubers 
and roots to be described in the following lecture. (Reference No. 79, 
pp. 41-46, 114-115.) Two distinct vegetables are commonly used in 
the United States under the name potato, i. e., the white or Irish 
potato and the sweet potato or yam of the Southern States. 

WHITE OR IRISH POTATOES. 

The prominence of the white or Irish potato in the daily diet of 
most Americans justifies special attention to it in these lessons. It has 
been called the king of vegetables. Though a native of America, it 
became so generally adopted in Ireland that it is now frequently 
termed the Irish potato. 

Many incidents are told of the slow recognition it received as a 
valuable food, and its early history is connected with Sir Walter 
Raleigh, Sir Francis Drake, and other early visitors to the New 
World. 

According to the historian of an early New England town : 

Even potatoes could not be afforded for ordinary use for many .wars. Dur- 
ing the Revolution a well-to-do family thought itself well off if it could have 
a barrel of potatoes for winter use. And these were kept for rare ami special 
luxuries and a choice honor t<> a guesl ; bul potatoes flourished so well in the 
new soil that early In iT'.io they became a staple article <>f food 

88 
I Vegetable Foods. Bul, 245.] 



40 TUBERS AND ROOTS. 

One reason why the potato has become such a favorite vegetable is 
doubtless its lack of pronounced flavor. It harmonizes with foods 
having a more positive taste, and one does not tire of it as one would 
of the continuous use of turnip or squash. Then, too, it is easily 
grown, gives an abundant yield, and may be readily stored for winter 
use. Mankind almost universally uses starchy food, and this nutrient 
potatoes abundantly supply in palatable form. 

Potatoes should weigh GO pounds to the bushel, or 15 pounds to the 
peck. As three or four average potatoes will together weigh 1 pound, 
a peck should number from 40 to 60. 

The oftener potatoes are handled in their transit from producer 
to consumer, the poorer their quality and the greater the percentage 
of refuse. When received from the market it is desirable to sort them 
carefully, that those of the same size may be cooked together- 
smooth, medium ones to be baked, large ones to be steamed in their 
skins, and imperfect and inferior ones to be pared before boiling. 
Any portions that are dark-colored or green should be removed, as 
they may impart a bad flavor to the rest. Sprouts should be broken 
from potatoes before cooking. (Reference No. 22, p. 10.) 

"When potatoes are old and wrinkled they are much improved by 
cutting off the ends or by partially or wholly paring and by soaking 
in cold water for several hours like dried beans, etc. In fart, inferior 
potatoes of any age are much improved by paring and soaking. 
Where potatoes are inexpensive or the parings can be fed to animals 
it is often a profitable custom to pare before cooking, since thus im- 
perfections and strong-flavored portions are disposed of. leaving a 
nearly pure starch, comparable to arrowroot or tapioca and ready for 
the table as soon as cooked; this is true notwithstanding that careful 
investigations have proved that such cooking causes considerable 
loss of the nutrients in the potato. (Reference No. 32, pp. 25-31. ) 

When potatoes are the only vegetable attainable it might be wiser 
to cook them without paring, so that their mineral salts may be re- 
tained, but people who use salad plants and other vegetables freely 
are justified in considering chiefly convenience and palatability in 
the preparation of these tubers. 

Often it is a convenience for the housekeeper who has several 
dishes to prepare at once just before dinner to have the potatoes 
pared earlier in the day. 

Most good cooks believe that it is wiser to discard the water in 
which potatoes are boiled, as it is likely to be strong in flavor. < Ref- 
erence Xos. 22, p. 10: GO, p. 220.) For general direction- for cooking 
potatoes see Reference No. 18, pp. 27-29. 

Potato Hour may be found in large groceries and is used in cakes 
and for thickening purposes. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



TUBERS AND EOOTS. 41 

SWEET POTATOES. 

Sweet potatoes (Reference Nos. 18, pp. 29-30; 25, p. 39) are not 
strictly tubers, but tuberous roots. There are many varieties of the 
plant, with different shape and color. Northern markets prefer a 
dry, smooth, yellow type, while in the South the moist varieties show- 
ing more sugar when baked are the favorites. They may be kept 
in a dry place at a temperature of 50° to 65° F., and are sometimes 
canned and often dried like fruits for family use. A flour is also 
made from the sweet potato. 

Because their sweetness is to some extent lost in water they are 
better steamed than boiled, and baking is a favorite method. 

After steaming they may be sifted and used in puddings or pies 
like squash or added to breads. 

In southern homes the sliced sweet potato (often first parboiled) 
has always been cooked with sugar, butter, and other seasoning. 
Such dishes, under a variety of names, are now general favorites. 

When the tubers are baked the process should not be too rapid, but 
should continue for an hour or until the skin separates from the 
pulp, and in the case of the varieties moist when cooked, until the 
sirup condenses, and the pulp grows moist. The negroes in the 
Southern States bake them in the ashes in the fireplace, and as soon 
as one meal is over put in those needed for the next. (Reference 
No. 18, pp. 29-30.) 

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, YAM, CASSAVA, AND OTHER STARCH-BEARING 
TUBERS AND ROOTS. 

(Reference Xos. IS, p. 30; 22, p. 28.) 

The Jerusalem artichoke is a kind of sunflower which has a thick- 
ened rootstalk valuable for food. The carbohydrate material in the 
tuber is like gum rather than starch, which gives a peculiar texture 
after cooking. The tubers Avere more popular before potatoes came 
into general use. They are crisp in the spring before they begin to 
grow, and may be cooked like potatoes, or served raw as a salad like 
radishes, or pickled. They are common in man}'' rural regions, arc 
found in city markets, and are not expensive. 

Yam (Reference No. 22, p. 32) is a name carelessly applied to 
some types of sweet potato. The true yams belong to the genus 
Dioscorea (Reference No. 48), and include many species abundant in 
the Tropics, bul which may also be grown in temperate regions. 
Many are grown in the Wesi Indies and Florida. They are rich in 
starch, thougb lacking 'lie sugar of sweet potatoes, and the flavor 
is pleasant when they arc boiled or coked in other ways. 

Many of these tubers are most satisfactory when baked, hut. like 
the potato, they may he prepared in other ways, 

[Vegetable Foods, Bul. 246.] 



42 TUBERS AND ROOTS. 

A new tuber which has received some attention from the Bureau 
of Plant Industry is the dasheen from tropical countries. (Reference 
No. 22, p. 31.) The plants resemble the caladium, which is such a 
popular ornamental plant, and the taro, which provides the " poi " 
of the Hawaiians, and which is a staple food in many tropical islands. 
The dasheens may be served like potatoes, boiled, fried, creamed, 
etc., but to many are, like potatoes, most acceptable when baked. 
They have a rough outer coating, which may be partially removed 
before cooking. If entirely pared there is a tendency to discolor, as 
with potatoes. 

The yautia (Reference No. 22, p. 31) is a Porto Rican tuber very 
much like the dasheen, which may be used like potatoes. Stachys 
(Reference No. 22, p. 29) is a tuber introduced from Japan and has 
little practical value, as it is not marketed in any considerable 
quantity. 

Cassava belongs to the spurge family (Reference Nos. 8; 22. p. 
30), and forms roots rich in starch. There are two principal types 
of the plant, the bitter and the sweet manihot. The first is com- 
monly grown in the Tropics and requires a longer season than the 
other, but produces a greater yield. The many varieties of the bitter 
cassava grown in Brazil contain in relatively large amounts the 
volatile poison found in this family of plants. This is dissipated 
by heat and the washing of the grated roots. The sweet manihot is 
cultivated in some of our Southern States, but mainly for starch to 
be used in textile and other industries. From both varieties tapioca 
of various forms is made, as is also the cassava bread which is so 
common in tropical countries, and which is found in many city shops 
under the name of cassava cakes. 

Arrowroot (Reference No. 103) is the name of the fine starch 
obtained from various tropical roots, and is due to the fact that the 
pounded roots were applied to swellings from poisoned arrows. The 
best arrowroot comes from Bermuda and the "West Indie-. Tn 
Europe it is popularly supposed to be the most digestible form of 
starch, and is much used for infants and invalids, as well as in line 
puddings and similar dishes. (Reference No. 00, p. 236.) In the 
United States cornstarch, the " corn flour " of English cooks, is more 
generally used. 

Sago may be properly studied in connection with tapioca, arrow- 
root, and similar starches, as its use is very similar, but it is the 
product not of a root or tuber, but the pith of a palm tree. The trees 
are cut and split; then the starch is washed, dried, and granulated. 
Fifteen years are required to grow a palm yielding 500 pounds of 
sago. The tree must be cut before blossoming. If time permitted, 
it would be interesting to study other palms which yield food prod- 
ucts, especially the " cabbage palm " and those producing coconuts. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



TUBERS AND ROOTS. 43 

The principal food substance derived from all the underground 
stems enumerated is the starch which has been thus stored up for the 
next generation of the plant's life. Starches from different plants or 
plant parts differ in the form of the starch grain, so that starches 
of various kinds can be identified by the aid of the microscope. But 
from the culinary standpoint they are practically interchangeable, 
and one form of starch may be substituted for another in nearly all 
cases. Just as we may substitute the yam or a dish of rice for the 
potato as a vegetable, so we may use starch from the potato, or corn, 
or wheat, or rice for thickening gravies or making puddings, making 
slight changes in proportion, according to the expansive powers of 
each kind. 

Starch cookery is a very important subject. That starch may be 
cooked it is essential that every starch grain be brought into contact 
with water of at least 140° to 178° F. (Reference No. 35, p. 25.) 

Potato, arrowroot, and probably tapioca and sago starch pastes are not 
made more easily digestible by long-continued cooking. * * * However, in 
the case of starch still inclosed in cellulose cells, as in many starchy foods, the 
long-continued cooking may be necessary. (Reference No. 35, p. 41.) 

The selection of potato starch instead of corn or wheat starch for thickening 
sauces in accordance with the custom of French cooks is rational, * * * 
since it does not require 40 minutes boiling for improvement in flavor as is 
the case with cornstarch. (Reference No. 35, p. 42.) 

For further study of starch see Reference Nos. 14 ; 34, pp. 24-48 ; 85, pp. 109, 
119, 146. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FIFTH LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — A potato for each pupil; any other tubers available; 
rice, tapioca, cornstarch, rice flour, fruit juice or jelly, milk, butter, salad 
dressing; fancy cutters, slicers, and scoops, different styles of potato mashers 
and ricers. These for trial ; a fork may be used to mash a small quantity. 

Exercises. — Let each pupil prepare a potato ; each in slightly different fashion 
according to the directions given below ; weigh before and after cooking, weigh 
refuse, estimate percentage of loss and time and fuel required for cooking one 
potato. Are tbese factors proportionately increased for a larger quantity? 
Compare time required to pare potatoes before cooking and after. What ad- 
vantages for eitber method? 

Potatoes. 

While the potatoes are cooking grate one raw potato, press out the water 

through a cloth or wire strainer into a glass measuring cup. Estimate per- 
centage of water in the potato (reference No. 34, p. 14). then wash out. the 
starch and cook it. (Reference No. 74, pp. 83-S4.) Observe the nature of the 
material remaining in the strainer. 

Among the met hods of cooking potatoes which may he tried in this lesson 
are these: 

Baked (1). Serve one at the right moment, leave another until the mois- 
ture condenses and the potato becomes soggy, with unpleasant odor and flavor. 

Raked (2). Cut. skin in half lengthwise, mash and season contents and 
return to skin. Add beaten egg white to one halt, hake and notice difference 
How is this difference caused'.- 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 246 I 



44 TUBERS AND EOOTS. 

Baked (3). Bake in dish, skin having been removed first; glaze occasionally 
with butter or meat fat. 

Boiled. Cook one in skin, another without skin. 

Steamed. Cook one in skin, another without skin. 

Mashed. Boil one potato, mash, season with butter, sm It, etc., add hot milk, 
measured, and note how much the potato will absorb. 

Cut and boiled. Cut a potato in slices or cubes, add milk and seasoning 
as in previous recipe, and compare results. Add grated cheese to part. 

Soup. Make soup from mashed potato in same fashion as with onion in 
previous lesson. Note lack of flavor — some addition of onion or celery indi- 
cated. Also note slight thickening needed in potato soup compared with onion 
soup. 

Salad. Make salad with cooked potato and onion like apple and onion salad in 
Lesson 4. 

Look up composition of potato. (Reference No. 30.) How does this explain 
the need for the addition of other materials? 

For various dishes in which potatoes are an important ingredient see Refer- 
ence Nos. 69, pp. 292-296 ; 72, pp. 59-67 ; 77, pp. 458-470. 

Comparison of rice and potato. Weigh out \ pound rice and cook in 2 quarts 
of rapidly boiling salted water until tender, and drain. The water may be re- 
served for soup in next lesson. (Reference No. 18, p. 38.) Cook an equal money 
value of potatoes. Compare value of results, including cost of fuel and labor 
expended and considering refuse in potatoes, etc. 

Experiments with Starchy Materials. 

Let each pupil or each two take a different form of starchy substance, flake, 
pearl, granulated tapioca, cornstarch, rice flour, sago, starch from potato, etc. ; 
cook with water until fairly transparent, salt slightly, and taste of each to 
learn to recognize characteristic flavor. Flavor with fruit-juice and sugar in 
similar proportions and taste again to see how uniformity in the dominant 
flavor disguises characteristics of the starches. Note possibility of substitu- 
tions in recipes. (Reference No. 34, pp. 24-28.) 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, FIFTH LECTURE. 

1. Show differences between bulbs and roots ; roots and tubers. 

2. What are the principal food substances derived from roots? 

3. Where did the potato originate and when was it introduced into Bnropel 

4. What differences in the nature of the new and old potato? How do these 
influence methods of cooking each? 

5. What is the weight of an average potato? 

6. Give approximate chemical composition of the potato. 

7. How may we find that the potato contains starch? 

8. From potatoes as ordinarily purchased how select for baking, steaming, 
croquettes, etc.? 

9. Describe general preparation and use of the sweet potato. 

10. What other roots and tubers furnish valuable starch? 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

SIXTH LECTURE— SUCCULENT ROOTS. 

The majority of these root vegetables are those where the main or 
taproot has become thick and fleshy. Cross sections of different 
specimens of such roots carefully examined, even without a micro- 
scope, will aid in understanding the effect of heat and moisture upon 
such foods. In older vegetables of this type woody fibers or cellu- 
lose will be found, which does not yield readily to the processes of 
cookery. 

This class of plants has long been cultivated by mankind, and was 
used more generally before the introduction of the potato. Occa- 
sionally they are combined with potatoes. 



The beet gives an excellent illustration of the difference between 
the young and old plant. The whole plant in an immature state may 
be cooked for greens (see Lecture 3), but by the time the beet is as 
large as an egg, the leafstalk is too fibrous to use. The bunches of 
beets from warmer climates found in northern markets in the spring 
usually have leaves that may be cooked and served for greens with 
the sliced roots, and these yield to the influence of heat and moisture 
in half an hour. Large winter beets which have been out of the 
ground for months have lost moisture and become woody, and may 
require four hours or more to make them eatable. Pickling in vine- 
gar must often be resorted to before such beets are really tender. 
(Reference No. 73, p. 149.) 

Beets contain a larger percentage of sugar than most vegetables, 
and should be baked or steamed to retain as much of this as possible. 
At all events, they should be cooked in the skins, and the tip of the 
root and a portion of the leaf stems should also be left on until after 
cooking. Even so, some color and sweetness are lost in the water in 
which they are cooked. 

TURNIPS. 

The turnip is cultivated in many varieties, but those used for 
human food fall into two main classes, those with white-fleshed 
roots and those yellowish in color, the latter are called rutabaga- or 
" Swedish " turnips. (Reference No. 22, p. 30.) 

46 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 'J45.J 



46 SUCCULENT BOOTS. 

KOHL-RABI. 

The kohl-rabi, which belongs to the same family as the turnip and 
the cabbage and combines characteristics of both, has been described 
on page 29. 

RADISHES. 

Radishes, red or white, when a little too large to eat raw, may be 
cooked like turnips and served with a white sauce. 

CARROTS. 

The tribe of Umbelliferae furnishes many of the root vegetables. 
A characteristic is the much-divided leaf, so noticeable in the carrot, 
celery, parsley, and parsnip. Some of the herbs used chiefly for 
flavoring purposes also belong to this group. (See p. 08) . 

The carrot may have been a native of England, or, if not, was 
introduced at an early period. It is believed that originally the root 
was hard and fibrous, and that the fleshy outside has been devel- 
oped by cultivation. As with other vegetables, there are many varie- 
ties, and some are so coarse in texture that those who have known no 
other type consider the carrot unfit for human food. Small or young 
carrots properly prepared are deservedly popular. Raw carrots 
often are eaten by children, and are advocated by those who believe 
in the use of raw foods. When grated, raw carrots may be used in 
soups without further cooking, or added to salads. The carrot con- 
tains so much sugar that its use for sugar making, in the same way 
as the beet, has been seriously considered. 

PARSNIPS. 

The parsnip is said to have been cultivated even before the Chris- 
tian era. The woody fiber of these roots is softened by freezing 
without injury to other portions. Hence they are left in the ground 
until the frost comes or even through the winter. But the roots 
must be used before they begin to grow again or they lose their 
sweetness and get "rusty." The larger ones are likely to be less 
sweet and more woody. Small parsnips just from the ground in the 
spring will cook in less than a half hour. If steamed in their skins, 
they lose less sweetness than by boiling. They should be peeled after 
cooking, and served plain or with white sauce, or sauteed in butter 
or mashed and made into fritters. They may be made into a stew 
with potatoes, onions, and milk. (Reference Nos. 18, p. 31; 73, 
p. 156.) 

CELERIAC. 

This is a variety of celery (see p. 24). (Reference Nos. 18, pp. 
32-33; 22, p. 35) sometimes known as German or "knob" celery or 
" turnip-rooted " celery, and resembles the turnip in shape and tex- 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



SUCCULENT BOOTS. 47 

ture, and may be cooked in like manner. Often if it is desired to 
retain all the flavor in the root, it is more satisfactory to steam than 
to boil it. Again, it may be pared before cooking, in which case the 
water should be saved to flavor soups, etc. Where time must be 
saved celeriac, like carrots, may be cut in cubes before cooking, then 
there will be still more loss of flavor, but the result may be more 
agreeable to some palates, and if the water is reserved for another 
purpose nothing is lost. 



This vegetable, which on account of its flavor is sometimes called 
oyster plant, is available during the late fall and winter, and, like 
the parsnip, may be left in the ground during the winter. (Refer- 
ence No. 22, p. 38.) The resemblance in flavor to the oyster is most 
apparent when the boiled vegetable is sauteed in butter or made into 
fritters. (Reference No. 18, p. 31.) The root turns dark quickly if 
the skin is removed before cooking, and after paring should be 
dropped at once into vinegar and water to prevent discoloration. 
After boiling for about 30 minutes, the salsify may be served with 
butter or white sauce, or mashed and made into fritters. (Reference 
No. 20.) It is also used made into a soup with milk. 

CONDIMENTAL ROOTS. 

Ginger and horseradish are other valuable roots, but are used not 
so much for food as for the flavor or relish they give to other things. 
(See Lectures 10 and 14.) (Reference No. 47.) 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, SIXTH LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — Old and new root vegetables of any kind within reach, 
such as beets, carrots, parsnips, celeriac, or salsify; graters, cheesecloth, test 
tubes, saucepans, measuring cup, tablespoon, teaspoon, and knife; cup milk, 
butter, flour, salt, pepper. 

Exercises. — Grate portions of each root available and note the proportion of 
water and the nature of the woody fiber. Compare results with those from the 
potato in the previous lesson. How about the proportion of starch? Taste tbe 
extracted water. Evaporate it and taste again. 

Parsnip, Salsify, Beet, and Celeriac. 

(1) Cook some parsnips, separating outer layer beforehand, and notice which 
part cooks sooner. 

(2) Pare some before cooking, and cook others in the skin in separate kettles. 
Taste the wnt i m- from each. Which has lost most sugar, presumably? 

(3) Steam some parsnips of same size as those thai were boiled. Compare 
time required for each process. Prepare salsify in same way. Use each for 
fritters or to saut£. 

(4) Cook beets whole, in skins, and in smaller sections and note loss <>f Juice 
and color. 

(5) Try celeriac in the Bame ways. 

[VpRotnlilo Foods, Bill. 245.] 



48 SUCCULENT ROOTS. 

Carrots. 
(Reference Nos. 22, p. 30; 32, pp. 16, 17.) 

(1) Cook one large old carrot whole in the skin. 

(2) Cook one large old carrot whole with skin scraped off. 

(3) Cook one large old carrot in slices. 

(4) Cook one large old carrot cut in cubes. 

If necessary these may all be boiled in one kettle and thus variation in time 
of cooking shown; but the difference in loss of substance can be shown only 
by cooking each size by itself. Compare, if possible, with young carrots as to 
time of cooking, texture, and sweetness. 

The carrots cooked as above may be served: (1) Plain with butter, (2) with 
cream or white sauce. (3) buttered and combined with half as many green peas, 
or (4) buttered and blended with a little chopped parsley or chives. 

For further experiments grated carrot may be made into marmalade with 
sugar and lemon juice or added to a suet pudding. (Reference No. 69, p. :'>■'<-. t 
Grated carrot or that which has been put through the meat chopper makes an 
effective garnish for. salad and may be used without cooking. It may be added 
to soups with little more cooking than is needed to heat it through. 

White Sauce for Vegetables. 

If the white sauce has been studied in a previous lesson with c;ibbago, onions, 
or potatoes, here is a chance to review it or otherwise to take it up. (Reference 
No. 73, pp. 63-65.) 

Follow directions given in reference, using 1 tablespoon butter. 1 tablespoon 
flour, and one-half cup milk. Make another sauce in the same fashion, but in 
place of half the milk use the water in which carrot, celeriac, etc., were boiled. 

REVIEW' QUESTIONS, SIXTH LECTURE. 

1. Describe the structure of roots. 

2. Tell of the methods of growth and preparation for the table of five common 
root vegetables. 

3. Define succulence. 

4. What are the principal food substances obtained from roots? 

5. Suggest combinations of vegetables of this type with others of a different 
nature. 

6. To increase the food value of this class of plants, what additions are 
desirable? 

7. Mention some of the most helpful utensils for the preparation of these 
vegetables. 

8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of paring before and after 
cooking? 

9. Are there any vegetables of this class with which you are not familiar 
or have not learned to eat? 

10. What substances extracted from roots have commercial value? 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS, 

SEVENTH LECTURE— FLOWERS AND FRUITS. 
FLOWERS AND PRODUCTS MADE FROM THEM. 

Most flowers are too delicate in structure to be of much value as 
foods, yet some are cooked occasionally. 

While flowers are attractive ornaments on or near the table, highly 
scented ones should not be allowed in the dining room, as their odors 
rarely combine well with the odors from cooked foods. 

The fashion of serving salads in roses or molding blossoms in 
jellies can not be commended. Nasturtium flowers are occasionally 
used to garnish a salad, and since they have a flavor like water cress 
are sometimes eaten. The buds are occasionally pickled. Orange 
flowers are well-known ingredients of cakes, creams, and confectionery, 
being added for the flavor which the}?' impart. Saffron and marigold 
petals once were considered important adjuncts in cookery, chiefly 
for the yellow color they imparted, and are often mentioned in old 
recipes for soups, etc. In southern Europe squash blossoms and the 
tiny squash to which the blossom is attached are dipped in batter 
and fried, and elder flowers also are used for fritters. Cooked squash 
flowers may be folded in an omelet. But such things have little food 
value in themselves. 

Sometimes rose petals, violets, and mint leaves are candied, but 
are used more for garnishing than for food purposes. Rose petals 
in the Orient are used for making a very sweet preserve. Many 
other blossoms serve as food, chiefly in the Tropics, but need not 
be mentioned further. 

Capers. 

Capers arc unexpanded flower buds of a tropical plant packed in 
vinegar. Cloves are also flower buds picked before expansion and 
dried. 

Cauliflower. 

As has been shown (see p. '2'.>). the portion <>f the cauliflower 

thai we eat is (he Mower head, and we discard root, stalk, and lea!'. 
though the white midrib of the leal" may he cooked also. (Reference 
No. 18, p. 15.) 

Globe Artichoke. 

The French or globe artichoke is. next to the cauliflower, the most 
important example of the use as food of tin- portion of the plant. 

L4579" Bull. 245— 12 4 48 

I Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



50 FLOWERS AND FRUITS. 

It thrives in southern Europe and the southern and central United 
States, but is not hardy enough for cold climates. The base of the 
flower head and the scales are thick and fleshy and have a delicate 
flavor if used before fully opened. (Reference No. 49.) The simplest 
method of preparing them is the best. (Reference Xos. 18, pp. 19, 
20; 75, pp. 99, 100.) Remove the stalk and under leaves and cut 
off tips of leaves. The flower heads may be eaten raw when very 
young, but commonly are soaked and parboiled in salted water until 
tender even when used as a salad. When done the leaves will separate 
readily. The " choke " is the fibrous center which should be scraped 
out with a spoon after cooking. The individual " leaves " are pulled 
off and eaten with a sauce or dressing. The bottoms or artichoke 
" buttons " may be dipped in batter and fried in deep fat or covered 
with force meat and then baked like stuffed tomatoes. 

The cardoon is allied to the globe artichoke, but is little used 
in the United States. 

Honey. 

Honey (Reference Nos. 2; 41) may properly be classed among the 
food products derived from flowers. In ancient times, before cane 
sugar was manufactured, it was the principal sweet, and to-day it is 
still much prized. A study of its history and folklore is interesting. 

The varying qualities of honey derived from different flowers are 
worthy of note. That obtained from white clover fields is of fine 
flavor and light color; raspberry plantations furnish a good quality, 
while buckwheat gives a dark color and a flavor which some do not 
relish; and certain wild plants, such as mountain laurel, may impart 
poisonous qualities to the honey made from them. Many races made 
fermented beverages from honey, mead for example. Recipes which 
have been handed down for generations are still used for honey cakes 
and cookies. 

Certain medicinal virtues are attributed to honey, and it has been 
the basis of many remedies for coughs and colds because of its deter- 
gent and soothing properties. 

Colors and Flavoring Extracts. 

Flowers find a considerable use in cookery for coloring and flavor- 
ing purposes. Dried saffron flowers, as already mentioned, are em- 
ployed for coloring foods yellow. Violets are used in a similar way 
for imparting a purple color, while a number of other colors are 
made from blossoms or leaves. Some highly prized flavoring ex- 
tracts are made from flowers; for instance, rose extract, orange- 
flower water, and sirup of violets. Nasturtium flowers are used like 
tarragon for flavoring vinegar, and other similar uses might be cited. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



FLOWERS AND FRUITS. 51 

FRUITS USED AS VEGETABLES. 
(Reference No. 21.) 

The fruit of a plant, botanically, is that portion in which the seed 
is perfected. In popular language, the distinction between a fruit 
and a vegetable is not easily made, and on the border line are several 
important food plants which have been called vegetable fruits. Such 
are tomato, eggplant, peppers, melons, cucumbers, squash, etc. 

The gourd famify, or Cucurbitacese, includes many of the true 
fruits used as vegetables. This family furnishes the largest fruits of 
any known plant, some being over 8 feet around and weighing more 
than 200 pounds. The squash, both winter and summer varieties, the 
pumpkin, vegetable marrow, cucumber, and melons belong to this 
family, and each may be used in several ways. Some varieties were 
known in Egypt and Persia from the earliest times, and squashes or 
pumpkins, the " pompions " mentioned by some of the early writers 
in this country, were raised by the American Indians before the white 
men came. 

The water in these fleshy seed receptacles may be shown by slicing 
and sprinkling with salt and leaving overnight. Then drain, weigh, 
and compare the result with original weight. 

Pumpkins and Squash. 

There is great variety in texture and flavor of the individual 
specimens of the same kind of either squashes or pumpkins, but care- 
ful cooking will modify these differences. The best are heavy in pro- 
portion to their size, having thick rather than thin flesh. Where the 
fibers are coarse, long cooking and straining will reduce them, and an 
excess of water may be evaporated. Where the shells are hard, bake 
or steam and then scrape out and mash the flesh. 

The cooked, strained pulp of squash or pumpkin is sometimes com- 
bined with milk or stock for soups or with custard for pies, or is 
added to doughs like those of corn bread or muffins, or may be cooked 
with sugar and spices for marmalades. (Reference No. 75, p. 51.) 

The summer squash is often not fully appreciated because often 
allowed to grow too large. Either variety, crookneck or turban, 
should be so tender that the seeds and skin are edible when cooked. 
Summer squashes may be cut in slices and fried, though they are most 
commonly boiled. When fully grown they may be used like winter 
squash, skin and seeds being removed. (Reference No. 18, p. 37.) 

Cucumbers and Melons. 

These fruits long have been popular with the human rao 
means of supplying water in a clean and wholesome form, as well as 
for food. When stale, wilted, or overgrown, the cucumber may m- 

I Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



52 FLOWERS AND FRUITS. 

terfere with digestion, but a fresh, young specimen, thoroughly peeled 
and left in cold water (sometimes salted) before serving, loses its 
bitter juices and is a palatable and usually healthful relish. 

The cucumber may be served as a salad by itself or to accompany 
fish or meats, or may be grated to add to rich sauces. It may be cut 
in strips, cooked, and served on toast like asparagus, and in other 
ways. The skin and seeds may be removed and the firm flesh used 
as a case for salads or, like pepper and tomato, it may be filled with 
forcemeat and baked. (Reference No. 16.) 

Melons rank with fruits. The common varieties are almost never 
cooked but are eaten as thej' come from the garden. The use of 
melon rinds and melons in their unripe state will be considered under 
pickles. (See Lecture 14.) 

Peppers. 

The fleshy seed vessels of many peppers are used not only .for 
their condimental value, but as a receptacle in which to serve other 
food. The southern green peppers, a variety which lacks the " hot " 
characteristic of common garden green peppers, may be found in the 
city markets most of the year at 2 cents to 5 cents each, and are used 
increasingly either stuffed and baked or as an ingredient of omelets, 
soups, and salads. 

The stem and seeds of the green pepper are removed together by 
cutting around the stem, and this portion may be used for flavoring 
soups. The seeds themselves are likely to be hot, and are considered 
indigestible. The thick section to which the seeds adhere may be 
trimmed and cooked with the peppers. 

If the peppers are small and fresh, they may be chopped or sliced 
thin and used raw in salads or as a garnish. Often they are bettor 
for parboiling. If put in a hot oven or on top of the stove for a few 
moments, the skins may be pulled off. 

The canned sweet Spanish red peppers (pimmentoes, see p. 56) may 
be used in similar fashion, and may be obtained from any large 
grocery store at moderate prices. These peppers are valuable be- 
cause they make tasteless foods savory and attractive. (Reference 
No. 18, p. 36.) Paprika is prepared from peppers of this mild type 
(see Lecture 10), red or cayenne pepper from "sharp" or "hoi*" 
varieties. 

Okra. 

This plant grows best in warm climates, though it may be grown 
as far north as New England. (Reference No. 13.) Dried and 
canned okra is obtainable in most markets, and the fresh pods are 
common in many large markets in regions where the plant is not 
raised. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



FLOWERS AND FRUITS. 53 

The pod and seeds are used together, and usually are sliced cross- 
wise and cooked till tender. It may be used alone, but is more often 
added to watery soups, as its mucilaginous nature serves as thicken- 
ing. (Reference No. 18, pp. 36, 42.) 

Eggplant. 

This plant has long been known, but is less generally used than 
many vegetables. It belongs to the same family as the potato and 
tomato — the nightshade family. As is the case with all succulent 
vegetables, its nutritive value is not high, but it is palatable and 
much liked by many. It may be cut in two, stuffed and baked, or 
in slices, crumbed and boiled or fried. (Reference No. 18, pp. 
36, 37.) 

Tomato. 

Though probably a native of America and known in Europe since 
the sixteenth century, the tomato was slow in coming into favor, 
possibly because of supposed poisonous qualities. It has been gen- 
erally used in this country for less than a hundred years, but its 
growth in popularity has been rapid. 

To this vegetable fruit we owe much in cookery. Alone and in 
combination it provides soups, sauces, and salads, and many relishes 
which make many mild-flavored materials appetizing. The sour 
taste of the tomato is due chiefly to citric rather than oxalic acid. 
(Reference No. 60, p. 243.) 

When tomatoes are served raw the skin is very commonly removed, 
and this is particularly desirable in the case of tomatoes which have 
tough skins. The peeling may be easily removed if the tomatoes 
are plunged into boiling water for less than a minute, then drained, 
and chilled over ice, if possible. They may be peeled when needed. 
Perfectly ripe tomatoes may be scraped with the back of a knife to 
loosen the skin, which then will peel easily, but this is less rapid than 
the scalding process. If cooked tomatoes are to be strained, it is un- 
necessary to peel them before stewing, as the skin will remain in 
the strainer with the seeds. Some persons believe that immersion in 
hot water injures the appearance and flavor of the tomato and peel 
them without this treatment. Many persons prefer to serve tomatoes 
unpeeled, particularly the hothouse tomatoes or other varieties with 
thin, tender skins. If this is done, the tomatoes should always be 
carefully washed in order that they may be free from any dirt acci- 
dentally present. The verysmall wA tomatoes which grow in clusters 
and are known as cherry tomatoes, often found in large market-, are 
very attractive for salads, and the yellow plum tomatoes are perhaps 
always eaten without peeling. 
[Vegetable Poofo, Bui. 245.] 



54 FLOWERS AND FRUITS. 

Bananas. 

Like the tomato, the banana may be regarded as a kind of con- 
necting link between vegetables and fruits. The under-ripe banana 
especially may be baked or fried like the potato or yam and served 
with meats. A satisfactory and simple way to cook bananas is to 
remove the skin, scrape off the rough outside, cut large ones in two 
across, dip in egg and crumbs, and fry brown in deep fat. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, SEVENTH LECTTJBE. 

Materials needed. — Three cans tomato, or fresh tomatoes; onion, green 
pepper, any other vegetable fruits in season; can opener or sardine scissors, 
strainer, masher, bread crumbs, butter, flour, seasoning. 

Exercises. — Have canned tomato of two grades with marked difference in 
price. Weigh each can ; weigh contents again after emptying. 

Cook each grade separately 15 minutes and strain through medium wire 
strainer, weigh refuse from each lot, and compare results. Estimate relative 
values based on cost, quality, and quantity. 

Open another can of tomato and drain in strainer without pressing through. 
Reserve liquid for soup, use solid portion for escalloped tomatoes. (Reference 
Nos. 18, p. 35; 73, pp. 162-163.) 

Use the strained tomatoes in any of the following ways: 

(1) Tomato toast. (Reference No. 18, p. 35.) 

(2) Tomato jelly salad. (Reference No. 73. p. 109.) 

(3) Tomato soup. (Reference No. 18, p. 41.) 
Several types of tomato soup may be made: 

(a) One part tomato, one part water, with flavor of herbs, and slight thick- 
ening with cornstarch. 

(6) One part tomato, two parts water, and a little beef extract, 
(c) One part tomato, two parts milk, and seasoning. 

(4) Tomato sauce. (Reference No. 73, p. 68.) 

(5) Spanish sauce. (Reference No. 73, p. 67.) 

(6) Cream of tomato. (Reference No. 73. p. 7S.) 

The following processes are also suitable for this lesson if the materials are 
obtainable : 

Stuffed eggplant; summer squash sauted (fried) ; winter squash, bard shell. 
steamed or baked: pumpkin or squash pie; stewed cucumbers on toast: cucum- 
ber and- tomato salad; eggs poached in tomato sauce; stuffed i>eppers or 
tomatoes; squash biscuits (Reference No. 73. p. 31. See also -p. 41). 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. SEVENTH LECTURE. 

1. What have you to say regarding the association of flowers with food? 

2. Have you ever seen flowers used in a way that seemed unsuitable? 

3. Tell something of the source and pre] 'a rat ion of capers and cloves. 

4. What product from flowers does the human race obtain through insects? 

5. Describe a fruit. 

6. Mention five so-called vegetables that are strictly fruits. 

7. Mention several members of the gourd family that have been used from 
ancient times. 

8. Tell something about the tomato plant, its family and characteristics. 

9. Give a list of dishes where the tomato is useful. 

10. Mention any other flowers and fruits used chiefly for condimental 
ses. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 240.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

EIGHTH LECTURE— SEEDS. 

For the structure of seeds see Reference No. 80, pages 257, 275. 

In the higher plants nature's most usual method for the perpetua- 
tion of the species is by means of the seed. Seeds contain the embryo 
from which the new plant develops and almost always a store of 
nutritive material for the growth of the new plant for a longer or 
shorter time after the seed has sprouted. The stored material varies 
in different plants; thus in such nuts as the walnut, oil is very 
abundant, while in the cereal grains it is chiefly starch which is 
stored. Seeds are usually protected by a hard outer covering like 
the bran layers and skin of wheat kernels, the skin of the peanut, 
or the shell of a nut. Frequently there is additional protection, as 
the husks on an ear of corn, the pod in which beans or peas grow, or 
the outer thick covering of a walnut. 

Taken together, seeds constitute one of the most important food 
groups, as is evident when we consider that numbered among them 
are the cereal grains and beans, peas, and other legumes, as well as 
nuts and the oil-bearing seeds such as cottonseed and sesame seed. 

Many seeds besides those used as foodstuffs are important; for 
instance, those prized for their aromatic flavors, such as allspice, 
cardamom, and caraway. 

The cereal grains have been considered at length in an earlier 
bulletin of this series (Reference No. 34), and aromatic seeds in the 
chapter which deals with spices (p. 68). The pulse family, which 
includes a number of our most important vegetables, is considered in 
the following section. 

The Leguminosse or pulse family (Reference No. 5) includes some 
of our most important food plants. The bean, lentil, and pea have 
been recognized in all ages and in all lands as substitutes for both 
bread and meat, and for the human race come next to the grains in 
general use. A Hindu proverb indicates the nutritive value of this 
type of food thus: " Rice is good, but lentils are my life." 

The. principal objections to a more general use of this class of 
food.-; arc that their flavor does not appeal at all, and that they have 
been found a cause of digestive disturbance under certain conditions. 

So far as the natural flavor is concerned, it [soften wise to remove 

a portion of it, even if this means also loss of substance, by ecu 

sionally changing the water in which the beans are soaking <>r in 

55 
[Vegetable Foods, urn. 245.] 



56 SEEDS. 

the early stages of cooking. There might be far more use of added 
flavors than is customary. Mint, parsley, onion, etc., often are 
cooked with green peas and beans, and their use would seem more 
needed with the dry ones. Other herbs and sweet peppers or pimien- 
toes, either green or red, also may be used to give variety. The chef 
sometimes uses bay leaf, clove, and nutmeg, but these must be added 
sparingly. We have much to learn from the Mexicans in their use 
of beans in combination with meat. (Reference No. 2 ( .». pp. 24, 25. ) 

BEANS, PEAS, AND LENTILS. 

Such beans (Reference No. 30, pp. 15, 16) as the navy bean and 
Lima bean contain relatively little fat. They do not grow rancid like 
grain products, but the older they are the harder to make them 
palatable and soft and the longer the processes of soaking and 
cooking. 

The long soaking of leguminous seeds is an important factor in 
their cookery. It took a long time for the seed to ripen and dry in 
the pod on the vine and it loses rather than gains water in the store 
and house. Therefore it is reasonable that considerable time will be 
required to fill out the cells of such a dense substance with water. 
Where there is no danger of fermentation, beans, etc., may be profit- 
ably soaked for even 48 hours. Pick over, wash well, add nearly 1 
quart of water for 1 cup of beans, and set in the refrigerator or other 
cold place. The water may be changed, if convenient, after 12 or 
24 hours. This serves to remove any rank flavor. (Reference No. 
74, pp. 87-89..) It is said that in eastern countries lentils are soaked 
a long time for this purpose. 

After this complete filling of the tissues with water the time 
required for cooking will not be much longer than for shelled beans 
fresh from the garden. True, there has been some loss of substance, 
but a corresponding gain in palatability. Soft water is preferable 
to hard both for soaking and cooking. (Reference Nos. 62, pp. 119, 
120; 65, pp. 7, 62; 82, p. 234.) 

Since the proper preparation of legumes is a long process, it is well 
to cook enough to serve in two or more fashions. Thus the baked 
beans often are reheated or served cold, and the final remainder used 
in soup. So, too, the dry Limas or red kidney or any variety may 
first appear as plain buttered beans, a further portion, prepared at the 
same time, be reserved for salad or croquettes, and any still remaining 
be utilized as a soup. (Reference No. 103, pp. 213, 214.) 

Lentils are not as generally used in this country as they deserve 
to be. They may be found in the markets of foreign sections of large 
cities and in the larger groceries. The price is about the same as that 
of dry beans and peas. There are many colors, as with beans. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



SEEDS. 57 

Esau's pottage is supposed to have been made from red lentils. 
Sometimes they are served like peas or with a seasoning of fried 
onion. Sometimes soup or puree is made from them. 

Revalenta or ervalenta are forms of lentil flour. In some parts of 
Europe a kind of bread is made from ground lentils. 

The use of bicarbonate of soda in the preparation of legumes is 
often decried, and it certainly should be employed with moderation, 
nevertheless it serves a useful purpose in making the skins more ten- 
der, and probably also forms new combinations with or neutralizes 
substances which tend to produce indigestion or flatulence. (Refer- 
ence Nos. 5, pp. 23, 24, 31, 32; 103, pp. 217, 218.) The addition of 
the potato or onion to the pot of beans before baking is doubtless 
an instinctive attempt to supply flavor lacking in the bean. In the 
same way East Indian cooks have learned to season their beans with 
asafetida, which is also thought to prevent flatulence. These phases of 
vegetable cookery have not as yet been studied sufficiently to warrant 
positive assertions, but the instinct of primitive people is often 
verified b}^ scientists. 

The use of fresh, young peas and beans is extensive, the seeds 
being sometimes served alone, and often with the succulent pod con- 
taining them. The pods of peas are ordinarily discarded, but some- 
times they are cooked for a while, and then the water in which they 
were boiled is used for cooking the peas themselves. There are also 
edible podded peas. 

" String " or " snap " beans, if young and tender, may be cooked 
quickl} 7 . If old and well grown they need longer cooking than is 
often given them. If overgrown they will be improved by parboiling 
for a few minutes in water to which soda has been added, about one- 
fourth level teaspoon of soda for 2 quarts of water. They should 
then be drained and cooked in fresh water. A combination of string 
and shell beans is a pleasing change from either alone. String beans 
appear to be more readily digestible if cooked uncovered. (Reference 
No. 18.) 

The large green pods of the red or cranberry beans remain tender 
until the seeds are nearly full grown, making them among the best 
types of string beans. 

In the Southern Slates cowpeas or field peas have been grown for 
many years as a fertilizer and for food for animals and man. These 
have :i distinctive, pleasant flavor, are u^vd green and dry. and are 
cooked like other peas or beans. The young pods are excellent as 
''snap beans." 

Chick-peas are used extensively in southern Europe, and may be 
found in the foreign markets in our large cities. 

The Mexican frijole is another type of bean the use of which 
might well be extended. 

[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 245.] 



58 SEEDS. 

The people of the Far East have cultivated many varieties of 
legumes that are not so well known elsewhere as food for man. though 
much use is made of them in the United States, particularly as 
forage crops. The soy bean from China and Japan differs from other 
common varieties in containing considerable fat ; it is used in making 
special types of so-called bean cheese or bean curd and for sauces of 
agreeable flavor. (Reference No. 5, p. 13.) The adsuki bean from 
the same countries is very prolific, and may be grown in this country. 
Its seeds are smaller than even the pea bean, but when prepared in 
the same fashions seem not unlike other legumes. These beans are 
often combined with rice by the Japanese. 

Some experiments recently have been tried, using a flour made from 
soy beans in bread making with an equal proportion of wheat flour. 
Such bread, it is claimed, has an advantage, particularly for dia- 
betics, in furnishing less starch and more protein than that made from 
wheat flour alone. 

Condensed foods for explorers have been made consisting largely 
of legumes. The " erbwurst," or pea sausage, was very useful to the 
German Army in the Franco-Prussian War. Of this. Mrs. Abel 
says (Reference No. 5) : 

It was invented by a cook, and the German Government bought the secret of 
its preparation. It consists of pea and lentil flour well cooked, evaporated, and 
mixed with a proportion of bacon, the proper seasonings, and some preservative. 
Mixed with hot water, it made a very nutritious soup for the soldier. It was 
found by the German Army to be invaluable, if used only in emergencies, but 
its continuous use brought on digestive disturbances and the eater soon tired 
of its taste. 

A flour of beans and peas may be obtained, but the soups resulting 
are not always as palatable as those properly made direct from the 
seeds themselves. 



Peanuts assumed little commercial importance until after 1865. 
About this time their use became general all over the United States. 
(Reference No. 5, pp. 25-20. 35-36.) Even now their food value is 
not popularly appreciated, though the demand for peanut butter 
increases. In this form the peanut is available for use in sandwiches, 
salad dressings, and soups. 

Some households find it wise to buy raw peanuts and roast them 
as needed. Overroasted peanuts are undesirable both as to flavor 
and digestibility. Raw peanuts are sometimes oaten, and are relished 
by many if well ripened and cured. They are often said to be difficult 
of digestion. 

The peanut butter may be made as wanted at less cost and of 
superior quality to much that is sold in the markets by putting the 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



SEEDS. 59 

roasted and shelled nuts through the meat chopper. The name is 
justified by the large amount of fat which the peanut contains, and 
which differentiates it from other legumes. 

COTTONSEED. 

Cottonseed meal is being experimented upon for human food. It 
has long been used for animals. The meal or flour remains after the 
oil has been extracted. Cottonseed oil is used in many ways like olive 
oil and similar oils, and in the manufacture of culinary fats. 

CEREAL, SEEDS AS VEGETABLES. 
Wheat, Oats, and Rice. 

The seeds of the common cereals are often used in preparing dishes 
served as vegetables, as, for instance, boiled rice, macaroni dishes, 
oatmeal fritters, farina cake, etc. (Reference No. 34, pp. 34-38.) 

Cereals do not possess very distinctive flavors, so it is a common 
practice when using cereal products in this way, to season the dishes 
highly with cheese, with tomato, or with onion, or else to cook the 
dishes in ways which will give flavor, as for instance, by browning in 
fat. Rice cooked with tomatoes, macaroni with cheese, and noodles 
seasoned with fried onions, are familiar examples of well-seasoned 
cereal dishes made tasty by the use of seasoning, while rice croquettes, 
mock oysters (made of oatmeal), and farina fritters are examples 
of foods made savory by browning in deep fat. 

Corn. 

Corn is a native of the New World and had been cultivated for 
centuries before America was discovered. Originally a tropical 
plant, it had been developed and changed by selection and culture 
until it would mature a crop as far north as Montreal, a remarkable 
achievement for an uncivilized people. 

Corn is commonly regarded as a distinctively American foodstuff, 
but it was long ago introduced into other countries and is now ex- 
tensively used in the Mediterranean regions of Europe, in Africa, in 
Australia, and in China. In the Tinted States it is — as it has been 
since Colonial times — a staple and very important foodstuff. 

Corn serves in more forms as a vegetable, food than perhaps any 
other grain. (Reference No. 23.) The Mexican uses the corn husk 
to wrap the combination of conn meat, and seasoning known as 
taiuales. The hulled corn or lye hominy is used not only as a break- 
fast cereal but also as a vegetable, and SO is the cracked corn or 
hominy. (Reference No. 14.) 

But the Sweet or green corn is mosl used and i> one of the most 
highly esteemed of American fresh vegetables. Enormous quantities 
[Vegetable Foods, Dul. 245.] 



60 SEEDS. 

are eaten fresh, and its canning is a great industry. The ears are 
roasted or boiled and served on the cobs; or the raw or boiled corn is 
cut from the cob and stewed or fried alone or in combination with 
beans, tomatoes, potatoes, etc., or served in soups or salads. ( Refer- 
ence No. 23, pp. 34—37.) Corn cnt from the cob is sometimes used in 
making pickles or relishes. The very young cobs are also pickled 
(seep. 88). 

Buckwheat. 

Another seed of importance is the buckwheat, which in reality is 
not a wheat at all, but is a near relative of sorrel, dock, and bind- 
weed. (Eeference No. 54.) It has been used for centuries in most 
countries of the Old World where grains are cultivated. The pan- 
cake or griddlecake made from this flour is a distinctly American 
product. A sort of biscuit or shortcake or shortbread was a rather 
common dish in earlier times in the United States. In the Old World, 
notably in Eussia, buckwheat is much used for making porridge. 
(Reference No. 34, p. 55.) 

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICE WORK, EIGHTH U3CTUHE. 

Materials needed. — Dry beans and peas of as many varieties as are obtain- 
able, sncb as white pea, yellow eye, red kidney, black, Lima, green flageolet beans, 
whole, split yellow, split green peas, lentils, approximately one-half pound each ; 
flour of beans, peas, and lentils: peanut butter; cans of green corn. peas, and 
of Lima or red kidney beans, or both; butter or other fat. milk, Beasonlng. 
For analysis of peas and beans see Eeference No. 30, pages 65, 67. 

COMPARISON OF FRESH, DRIED, AND CANNED LEGUMES. 

When possible secure green peas or beans in the pod, measure and weigh (1) 
as purchased, (2) after preparation for cooking, (3) after cooking, and estimate 
percentage of loss and actual cost per person. Keep a record of the time re- 
quired to string the beans or shell the peas. 

Compare all results regarding cost with those from canned peas and beans, 
using care in separating the liquid from the latter. 

Taste the water in which fresh green peas are boiled and note its sweetness; 
allow it to evaporate until just enough remains to serve with the peas. Taste 
the water from canned peas; if agreeable in flavor, do not throw it away. 
Note the difference in the water from string beans. 

Lima Beans. 

Weigh and measure the dried beans, wash, soak, and leave 24 hours: weigh 
again; if feasible, leave 12 to 24 hours longer and again weigh to Bee how much 
they swell after the first; measure and compare with original bulk. Compare 
also with contents of Lima beans. It is a good plan to count the number of 
beans in the can and compare with the cost of the same number of dry ones. 

If Lima beans are not available, try the same experiment with any kind of 
beans available. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



61 



Dry Lima beans may be cooked until the skins are tender. The beans are 
so large that it does not take long to slip off the skins by hand after par- 
boiling. The skinned beans may then be cooked and served much like mashed 
potato, with addition of fat, salt and pepper, or may be used for croquettes or 
soup. Or some of the beans which retain their shape may be rinsed off and 
served with lettuce and dressing for a salad. 

In connection with this use of Lima beans it is interesting to note another 
use of legumes in salad dressing. Peanut butter reduced with lemon juice or 
water and vinegar and seasoned makes an excellent salad dressing. Cotton- 
seed oil, peanut oil, and a number of other seed oils, when rightly made and 
refined and fresh, are palatable in salads used in the same way as olive oil. 

Baked Beans. 

Baked beans are not easily managed in short experimental periods, but their 
study may be accomplished in lessons on successive days. Soak the beans 12 
to 24 hours, and then parboil. Let them be well started in the baking process, 
and then transfer to a tireless cooker (Reference No. 34, p. 33), where they may 
remain till the next day. At the beginning of the next lesson put them in a 
hot oven and bake two or three hours more. By this plau a fairly good result 
will be obtained. (Reference No. IS, p. 2G; 73, pp. 147, 148; 71, p. 67.) 

Cowpeas. 

The cowpea, or field pea, as it is sometimes called, is commonly grown in the 
Southern States. Cowpeas may be used in place of other legumes in practice 
work, if more convenient, or may be used in addition to them. 

The cowpea requires a longer season to mature than the kidney bean and so 
is seldom found in northern markets, though it might well be generally intro- 
duced on account of its distinctive and agreeable flavor. The tender cowpea 
pods can be cooked like string beans, the underripe peas shelled and cooked 
like green peas or green beans, while the dry peas may be used in various ways 
for making soups, croquettes, fritters, and other dishes. 

Baked cowpeas may be prepared according to the directions given above for 
baked beans, or the dry cowpeas may be covered with luke-warm water and 
parboiled slowly for several hours until a little soft, at one lesson: and then at 
the next period, transferred to the bean pot. seasoned with salt pork ami other 
seasoning if desired and baked slowly for about G hours. (Reference No. 5, 
P. 11. For additional data, see U. S. Dept Agr., O. E. S. Bui. 187, " Studies on 
the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Legumes at the University of Ten- 
nessee, 1901-1905;" Tuskegee Norm. Ind. Inst. Expt. Sta. Bui. 5, " Cowpeas." » 

To accompany this lesson one of these menus might be prepared: 



Soup — (irt'cn split peas. (Reference 
No. t:;. p. its.) 

Baked beans. (Reference X". 7.".. 
p. 147.) 

Apple and onion Balad with peanut- 
butter dressing. 



[Vegetable f Is, Bui. 845.] 



Peanut soup. (Reference No. 7.x, 
P. 80.) 

Spanish beans, i Reference No. t;:. 
p. us, 

Croon pen timbales. I Reference No. 
r:;. p. L66.) 

siring bean Balad. 

Peanut cookies. (Reference No. t::. 

p. 210.) 



62 SEEDS. 

3. 

Cream of com soup. 
Succotash, or 
Corn fritters, or 
Hominy croquettes. 
Baked Indian pudding, or 
Cornstarch blanc mange. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, EIGHTH LECTURE. 

1. Describe seeds of different types. 

2. Why do seeds contain more concentrated nutritive material than other 
parts of plants? 

3. What groups of seeds are most important for hum.-m food? 

4. Describe two principal types of leguminous plants. 

5. What is the main difference in composition between dry beans and fresh 
shelled beans? 

6. Explain the addition of fat meat in baking beans. 

7. What uses have been found for cotton seeds? 

8. What can you say of buckwheat, its characteristics, growth, and uses? 

9. Mention points in favor of and against gi-inding peas, beans, etc., into a 
flour before using them for soups. 

10. Compare canned and dry beans as to cost, labor of preparation, and 
quality. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS, 

NINTH LECTURE— FUNGI. 

There are many plants quite unlike those already studied, in that 
they contain no green coloring matter or chlorophyll and are flower- 
less. This class of plants is called by the Latin name fungus, and 
includes many curious specimens of varied sizes, forms, and colors. 

A characteristic of this type of plant life is that it draws its sub- 
sistence not directly from the earth, but from other organic matter. 
(Eeference No. 53.) There are thousands of species thriving either 
on the living tissues of their hosts or on the cast-off cellular matter 
of the latter. Some, like the molds, are very minute, while puffballs 
and toadstools have been found from 1 to 2 feet through. 

MUSHROOMS, ETC. 

Many of the larger types of fungi are popularly grouped together 
as mushrooms. (Eeference No. 46.) Some of these are extremely 
poisonous; others are harmless, but of no particular culinary value, 
while there are many edible varieties much esteemed for their delicate 
and peculiar flavor. Every country dweller fond of mushrooms 
might well learn to recognize the common mushroom (Agaricus cam- 
pestins), the shaggy mane {Goprinus comatus), the ink cap (Copri- 
nus atramentarms) , the parasol {Lepiota procera), the chanterelle 
(CitntharelZus cibarius), morel (Morchetta escvlcnta), the liver or 
beefsteak fungus (Fistulina hepatica), the fairy ring (Jfarasmius 
oreades), the giant puffball {Lycoperdon giganteum), and others. 
(Reference Nos. 50 and 95.) 

Many of the edible mushrooms prove a cause of gastric disturb- 
ance, or irritating to the digestive tract, if used when past their 
prime. None of the common tests of silver spoon, etc., for poisonous 
varieties are safeguards, but if the fungi are gathered with due cau- 
tion, to include only wholesome kinds, many a savory morsel may be 
enjoyed. Even around an old tree trunk in a Large city more than 
one dish of ink caps lias been secured. 

Mushrooms should be gathered without the adhering earth, the 
stems broken rather than pulled, Tor once sand is scattered through 
the gills it is hard to remove. (Reference No. 1. p. L2.) First wash 
by floating in water, gills down. Young or button mushrooms need 

[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 246.] 



64 FUNGI. 

not be peeled, but old ones should have the skin removed, pulling it 
from the circumference to the center. 

The common market mushroom (Agaricus carn/pestons) , which is 
often found growing in old pastures, is the only kind commercially 
cultivated in this country. It grows 2 to 3 inches high, has a cap 
about as wide when fully expanded, which is a brownish white above, 
and sometimes tinged with pink below. The color deepens as the 
mushroom grows older, but even when it is fully expanded and quite 
dark the flavor is good. It may be purchased canned, but is much 
better fresh, and may be grown for home use. (Reference Nos. 1, 12, 
53, 95.) Dried mushrooms of various kinds may be bought in some 
of our large markets and in the small stores in the foreign quarters 
of our large cities. The fairy ring and parasol varieties may be easily 
dried and kept indefinitely at home. The)' should be freshened, like 
any dried vegetable, by soaking until they have regained their 
natural size. 

Many recipes for cooking mushrooms call for the removal of the 
stems, but they may be used if not too woody. It is a good plan to 
slice them crosswise and cook for a few minutes previous to adding 
the caps, or the stems may be reserved for flavoring soups or sauces. 

The food value of the mushroom is often rated higher than it 
deserves, partly because the analyses of the fresh and dry have been 
confused. (Reference No. 3.) The average composition of the fresh 
material is as follows : Water, 88 per cent ; protein. 3.5 per cent ; fat, 
0.4 per cent; carbohydrate, 6.8 per cent. (Reference No. 57.) 

These figures are comparable to those for milk as regards water 
and protein, but the fat is much less — more like that in skim milk — 
and the carbohydrate content is higher. The special value of the 
mushroom, however, is not as a source of nutrients, but as a flavoring 
for otherwise tasteless viands. (Reference No. 40, p. 305.) 

The truffle, an underground fungus growth much esteemed for its 
flavor, has been called the " diamond of the kitchen " and a " sample 
of Paradise" by French epicures. (Reference No. 87. -pp. 383-396.) 
It was known to the Greeks and Romans, but had its greatest vogue 
in Paris early in the nineteenth century. Dogs and pigs have been 
trained to hunt for truffles, and their presence is also indicated by 
insects which are attracted by their odor. The canned truffles avail- 
able here seem to many not worth the price demanded for them. 

MILDEW, MOLDS. AND FERMENTS. 

These also are classed under fungi. Some of them are looked upon 
as enemies, yet many of the characteristic and delicious flavors in 
butter, cheese, fruit cakes, and pickles are due to the development of 
such fungi. (Reference No. 59, pp. 51-57.) 
[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 245.] 



FUNGI. 65 



Yeast is a microscopic plant of the fungus type. It will grow 
without light, but like any plant it must be kept moist and warm. 
It will grow in a wide range of temperatures from just above freez- 
ing point to over 120° F. (Reference No. 96, ch. 34.) Though for- 
merly commonly prepared at home, yeast for bread making and 
similar purposes is now very commonly purchased ready prepared. 
(Reference Nos. 63, pp. 7-39; 71, pp. 79, 80, 82; 85, pp. 184-191; 97, 
pp. 161-163.) 

In connection with bread making it is worthy of notice that most 
of the chemicals used to leaven quick breads are of vegetable origin, 
though not living organisms like yeast. Soda is commonly produced 
from ash of vegetable substances. Cream of tartar is a deposit 
from the juice of grapes formed on wine casks during fermentation. 
Occasionally it is found in the dregs of grape juice. Since this is 
an expensive article, other substances often are used in its place. 
(Reference Nos. 61, pp. 117-154; 62, pp. 23, 36-39; 65, pp. 89-92.) 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, NINTH LECTURE. 

4 

Materials needed. — The materials needed include mushrooms, fresh, dried, 
or canned, pieces of rotten or moldy apple or other fruit, and either yeast cakes 
or liquid yeast. 

Mushrooms. 
Prepare fresh, dried, or canned mushrooms with white sauce or use in soups. 
Mold and Decay. 

(1) Cut through the skin of some vegetable or fruit with a knife dipped into 
mold or decay from another fruit. Watch day by day for changes. 

(2) Put a whole fruit or vegetable and a piece of bread in a sterile jar, cover, 
and set away. 

(3) Scatter spores of mold in a jar and then put in the jar a bruised fruit 
or vegetable and piece of the same bread. Cover and leave for several days 
beside the other jar. ( Reference Nos. 34, p. 60 ; 59 ; 62, pp. 73-75. 77, 78 ; 63, 
pp. 33-38, 109-116; 85. Cli. XVI.) 

Yeasts and Fermentations. 

(1) Experiment on the effect of temperature (from Reference No. 71, p. 79). 
Blend one yeast cake thoroughly in a pint of water to which has been added 1 
tablespoon of sugar. 

(a) Freeze a portion of the mixture, then allow to thaw at room tempera- 
ture. 

(b) Roil another portion and cool to room temperature. 

(c) Take a third portion at room temperature 
((f) Chill a fourth portion. 

14679° Bul.245— 12 5 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



66 FUNGI. 

Fill bottles from each of the above and invert them on plates. Keep (a), 
(6), and (c) at 32° to 37° F. and {d) packed in ice during the remainder of the 
laboratory period. Explain results observed. 

(2) Molasses and yeast. (Reference No. 59, exp. pp. 21-29.) For further 
experiments see Reference No. 59, pp. 30, 31, and Appendix, pp. 2G7-285. 

Yeast muffins, etc., may be made in the usual way and also with the addition 
of strained pulp of fruit or vegetables, such as wbite or sweet potato, apples, 
squash, or pumpkin, and mashed parsnips. These may be used interchangeably. 
(Reference No. 73, p. 31.) 

If there is time in connection with the lesson, breads should be made wholly 
or in part with flours made from bananas, chestnuts, potatoes, soy beans, or 
such other substances of like vegetable origin as can be secured. 

Some writers on cookery consider such addition as adulterations of bread, 
but they deserve recognition for the variety thus afforded. (Reference Nos. 
34, pp. 42-44; 72, pp. 125-129; 74, pp. 101-108.) 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, NINTH LECTURE. 

1. What are the characteristics of fungi? 

2. Describe any mushrooms you know to be edible. 

3. Can you describe any poisonous fungi? 

4. How do mushrooms rank in nutritive value? 

5. What effect have such fungi, as mold, etc., on foods? 

6. What is the source of the various leavening agents used in breads, etc.? 

7. Tell all you can of yeast, its nature, method of use, etc. 

8. What vegetables are sometimes combined with flour for making bread? 

9. How may we guard foods from ill effects of molds and ferments? 

10. What forms of fungi commonly attack fabrics? 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS, 

TENTH LECTURE— CONDIMENTAL VEGETABLE FOODS AND EOOD 
ACCESSORIES. 

The value of appetizers or food accessories is generally recognized. 
(Eeference No. 60, pp. 274-275.) The Germans class these with 
others under a convenient title " Genusmittel," or " means of enjoy- 
ment," " pleasure giving." The words condiment, herb, and spice are 
used somewhat indiscriminately, but together refer to various vege- 
table products used in small quantities to add flavor where it is lack- 
ing or to develop natural flavors in food. (Reference No. 74, p. 130.) 
The terms may include such vegetables as radishes and water cress, 
which are served in their natural state; flavoring materials, such as 
spices, savoiy herbs, and extracts used in general cookery; and pre- 
pared sauces, pickles, etc., in which some mild-tasting material usu- 
ally serves to carry a combination of flavors. In whatever form they 
may finally appear, the majority of these flavors are due to the vola- 
tile oils or similar bodies developed in the plants from which they 
were obtained. 

The actual quantity of these articles in any one dish is usually so 
small that their nutritive value can hardly be counted, but in the total 
estimate they are important, because they may make otherwise insipid 
or monotonous foods more palatable and so render them more 
digestible. 

Beverages like tea and coffee, such materials as sugar and oil 
when used mainly for flavor, vinegar, and other food accessories, are 
also considered in this lecture. 

«ONDIMENTAL VEGETABLES AND PREPARED RELISHES. 

Under this head may be included many vegetable products, such as 
peppers of various sorts, mustard, and horseradish (Reference No. 61, 
pp. 130-134), and a host of preparations or compounds designed to 
give zest or enjoyment to the act of eating and to aid digestion. 
Various pickled fruits and vegetables, the preparation and use of 
which is discussed in a later lecture (see p. 88), should be mentioned 
in (his connection. 

Some materials of East Indian origin, such as curry, chutney, cat- 
sup, and tamarind.-, are well-known relishes. Tomato, apple pulp. 
etc., are likewise used as a medium for combining many spices and 

87 

[Vegetable Foods. BoL 246 ] 



68 CONDIMENTAL FOODS AND FOOD ACCESSORIES. 

condiments. Cassareep, made from the juice of manihot roots, the 
poisonous property of which has been rendered harmless by boiling, 
is a thick, black fluid used as the basis of some potent table sauces. 
Mushroom and walnut juices are used for the same purpose. Sassa- 
fras leaves, when young and tender, are used in some localities to 
thicken soups, etc., and, like okra, supply a mucilaginous material. 

FLAVORING MATERIALS. 

Herbs. 

The herbs properly include the herbaceous or green portion of cer- 
tain annuals, biennials, and perennials that are used green or dried 
and usually in a chopped or sifted form in sauces and stuffings. The 
word is also used to include the medicinal plants which once were 
grown or gathered and stored by every housemother. By the way of 
further distinction, the herbs used for flavoring were often called 
savory herbs, and those which were cooked for use alone were called 
potherbs (see p. 28). Among the herbs most used in the kitchen are 
marjoram, sage, summer savory, thyme, mint, parsley, dill, tarragon, 
and sweet basil. These are combined with meats or used in unsweet- 
ened dishes. 

Spices. 

Spices, with the exception of pepper, red pepper, and mustard, 
are associated mainly with sugar in common household use. Some 
spices, as nutmeg and mace, are used in meat dishes and with vege- 
tables in continental cookery and much less commonly by American 
cooks. Cloves are also used in a limited way in meat cookery. 

Other common species are allspice (pimento), cassia, cinnamon, 
ginger, mace, nutmeg; anise seed, bay leaves, carraway, cardamon, 
and coriander are less generally used. (Reference No. 102.) 

Flavoring 1 Extracts. 

Vanilla is perhaps the most popular flavoring extract- used in home 
cooking, and different qualities should be known ; almond and lemon 
extracts, too, are common. Since true vanilla is the most expensive 
flavoring material, it is possible to reduce its use where economy 
must be practiced and to substitute other flavors and spices in small 
amounts. They are often used too freely, and the result is unpal- 
atable. These three and rose and orange are made directly from the 
natural product, while other fruit extracts are usually made syn- 
thetically. (See also p. 50.) (Reference No. 61, pp. 143-146.) 

Condimental foods are especially liable to adulteration and sophis- 
tication. There are usually several grades of the pure article and 
the teacher and housekeeper should know the difference. (Reference 
Nos. 51 ; 86, ch. 37.) 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



CONDIMENTAL FOODS AND FOOD ACCESSORIES. 69 

BEVERAGES. 

Tea. 

Tea has been used as a beverage from remote ages by the Chinese, 
and is probably in more general use than any other hot beverage. 
(Eeference No. 97, pp. 203-207.) Leaves of many other plants have 
been substituted for tea, particularly in times of scarcity. The mate 
or Paraguay tea is a common beverage of South America, made from 
the leaves of a species of holly. (Reference Nos. 24; 104.) 

Coffee. 

Coffee has been known in Arabia and Persia from ancient times. 
Its introduction into England was accomplished with difficulty. The 
United States consumes about half of the world's supply. The 
amount used is not far from 1 pound per person a month. (Refer- 
ence No. 61, p. 31-41.) 

Chocolate and Cocoa. 

Chocolate and cocoa may be classed with other beverages, though 
they are foods in themselves, and, as usually served, are combined 
with a larger proportion of milk and sugar than are tea and coffee. 
These are products of an American plant apparently introduced into 
the Old World shortly after the discovery of this country. (Refer- 
ence Nos. 61, pp. 41-46; 97, pp. 210-213; 101.) 

MISCELLANEOUS FOOD ACCESSORIES. 

Sugar and olive oil, peanut oil, cottonseed oil, and other vegetable 
oils are often thought of as accessories rather than as real foods in 
the United States, yet they have a high value as energy-j-ielding 
foods, and this fact should be appreciated. Sugar is, of course, used 
in large quantities and the use of vegetable oils, though fairly com- 
mon at present, may well become more general. (Reference Nos. 23, 
p. 14; 42; 61, pp. 104-106.) 

Vinegar, which is one of the oldest condiments, may be classed as 
a food accessory, and has little or no food value. It will l>" con- 
sidered further on in relation to the preservation of food materials. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, TKNTll LBCTUBX. 

Flavoring' Materials. 

Materials needed. — Samples of spiers, herbs, etc., in dlfferenl stages <>f prep- 
aration; '_' lemons, 12 oranges, 1 vanilla bean, a few lumps of sugar, some pow- 
dered sugar, alcohol, bottles; lemon extract 

[Vegetable Foods. Bui. 245.] 



70 CONDIMENTAL FOODS AND FOOD ACCESSORIES. 

Spices and herbs. — Cover the labels on the spices and see how many the 
pupils can distinguish by sight and taste. Other tasting contests may be 
arranged. Cook whole spices in water or sugar sirup and taste each combi- 
nation. Try similar tasting exercises with herbs, steeping in vinegar instead 
of boiling in sirup. 

Flavoring extracts. — Wash and dry lemons and oranges. With lumps of 
sugar rub surface of one of each till sugar absorbs some of the yellow flavoring 
oil. Cut fine, thin strips of the yellow rind only, put in bottles, cover with 
alcohol, and leave for several days. The extract may, after a time, be drained 
off and the peel discarded. 

Divide the vanilla bean and pound part of it in a small mortar with powdered 
sugar. Sift the sugar and keep it to sweeten and flavor. Tue particles of the 
bean removed may be steeped in milk for custards, etc. The other portion of 
the bean may be put in alcohol. 

To test lemon extract add equal volume of water, if lemon oil is present 
the mixture will be cloudy. 

Beverages. 

Materials needed. — Any available samples of teas, coffees, cocoa, and chocolate : 
filter coffeepot. 
Tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate: 

1. Soak in cold water; notice color and flavor or lack of it. Bring to boiling 
point and again taste. 

2. Pour rapidly boiling water over tea; infuse with tea ball. Let boiling 
water drip through coffee in a strainer or filter coffeepot. 

3. Boil tea and compare color and strong flavor with that made properly as in 
experiment 2. 

4. Boil coffee in uncovered saucepan. Note loss of aroma. 

5. Any available "patent" coffeepots may be tested and the result compared 
with the right use of the simplest appliances. 

6. Soak different grades of tea in water, unroll the leaves, noting size of 
leaf, proportion of stem, etc. (Reference No. 72, pp. 30S-309.) 

7. Test different samples of coffee for chicory and other adulterations. When 
mixed with cold water pure coffee floats on top, while adulterations, especially 
chicory, sink and give a brownish color to the surrounding water. (Reference 
No. 88, pp. 133,134.) 

8. Prepare cocoa and chocolate in different ways (Reference No. 72, pp. 
308-310) and compare flavor, nutritive value, and «X)St of each. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, TENTH LECTURE. 

1. What is the use of flavoring materials? 

2. How does the cost of such articles compare with their actual nutritive 
value? 

3. Give a simple classification of these substances. 

4. What are some of the virtues of olive oil? 

5. Have you learned to eat it and enjoy it? 

6. What can you say of the food value of the three principal beverages 
commonly served hot? 

7. What is the best method of making tea V 

8. In its preparation what special points must be safeguarded? 

9. What simple tests will indicate presence of adulteration in coffee? 

10. Distinguish between chocolate and cocoa. Tell how to prepare each. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

ELEVENTH LECTURE— SUMMARY OF COOKERY. 

Having briefly studied some of the most important groups of vege- 
table foods, we are now better prepared to classify methods of cook- 
ing and see how they may be adapted to developing the best qualities 
of plant foods. 

The chief objects of cooking vegetables are these : To sterilize any 
from doubtful sources; to soften or separate the woody fibers; to 
make the carbohydrates, etc., more accessible to the digestive juices; 
to modify and develop flavors ; and to put in attractive form for the 
table. 

The principal processes of cookery for vegetables are the same as 
for meats — baking, boiling, and frying, with their modifications ; but 
these must be adapted to the nature of the specific vegetable. (Eef- 
erence No. 74, pp. 22, 23, 90, 122.) 

There are classifications of vegetables according to their botanical 
families and the parts of plants represented or according to their 
composition, as green or wateiw, starchy, nitrogenous, fatty, etc. 
In discussing the use of different varieties in the kitchen these 
groups are not always considered as they should be. Instead of 
studying the family and composition of the plant which would aid 
in showing the best wry to prepare it, too often every type is treated 
in the same fashion. 

For convenience of the cook, all vegetables may be classed as 
either the fresh, which are ready for cooking, or the dry, which must 
be thoroughly soaked before using, and the canned, which may be 
used by simply healing and seasoning, or in many other ways. Fur- 
thermore, with both fruits and dried vegetables, it should be consid- 
ered whether they are strong in flavor, in which case they should 
be cooked in water first to remove some of their juices, or sweet or 
well-flavored, and to be prepared in such a way as to retain as much 
of their natural flavor as possible. Yet here the age and condition 
of each specimen must be considered, and the dividing lines between 
sweet an. I strong can not be made hard and fast; the young and 
perfect forms of the stronger types may lie much sweeter ami better 
flavored than old and imperfect samples of the sweet-flavored kinds. 
(Reference No. T<», p. 32.) 

CIIOOSINO, SOKTINC, AM) CLEANING VEGETABLES. 

Careful choosing, sorting, and cleaning should precede any process 

of cookery. (Kel'erenee No. 2S, pp. -J I. l'.V) 



[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 245.] 



72 SUMMARY OF COOKERY. 

Medium-sized vegetables are always to be preferred to the over- 
large. 

Plants grown slowly are liable to be tough and corky, while those 
having abundant moisture and sunlight are crisp, tender, and well 
flavored. 

The shorter the time and journey between garden and table the 
better for green plants. It is wiser not to gather vegetables while 
they feel the effects of the midday sun, but rather to pick them after 
the dew has evaporated in the morning, or if that is not possible, in 
the cool of the late afternoon. (Reference Xo. 28, p. 33.) 

Wilted vegetables can never be wholly satisfactory, but may be 
improved by careful washing and removal of inferior portions, and 
then soaking in cold water, or with salad plants by wrapping in a 
damp cloth. ( Reference No. 28, p. 39.) 

The soaking of vegetables in cold water to freshen them probably 
extracts some of the valuable saline matter. When they are blanched 
in hot water or parboiled still more mineral matter is lost. If boiled 
in considerable water of which no use is made, some of the soluble 
saline matter is wasted. This mineral matter is generally conceded 
to be valuable. Obviously it would be of special importance if the 
dietary were such that little was obtained from other sources, such 
as fresh fruits, salad plants, and other foods with a resonably high 
ash content. It has already been indicated how the waste may some- 
times be avoided by using the water for soup, scallops, etc. 

Often it is convenient and wise to cook a double portion of a vege- 
table and serve part of it a second day in a different form. This 
should not be attempted in warm weather unless a refrigerator is 
available. Ordinarily a vegetable well salted while cooking and 
drained and cooled quickly will keep 24 or 48 hours in cool weather. 

Enough potatoes may be cooked to serve as plain boiled or mashed 
to-day, while the firmer ones are reserved to broil or grill in slices, 
fry, or cream the next day. When gas is the fuel this is worth while, 
for it would take 30 minutes to boil fresh potatoes and only 10 
minutes to reheat them. For use of tireless cookers with vegetal ties, 
see Reference No. 89. 

Most vegetables are lacking in fat, so we contrive to add it in s<.iiu> 
form while preparing them for the table or to serve them with fat 
meats, etc. So far as the need of the human body goes, it makes 
little difference whether this fat is in cheap or expensive form, 
whether the vegetable is cooked with fat or dressed with cream or 
salad oil; one form may be more agreeable to some than another, or 
some fat may be less rapid in digestion, though that is a point on 
which little reliable information is available. 

Beef suet, bacon fat, cream, butter, and olive and other vegetable 
oils all are used. There is little difference in expense between the 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



STJMMAEY OF COOKERY. 73 

best olive oil and thick cream. The oil keeps better, and hence 
always may be available. A taste for salad oils is desirable and 
should be acquired. (Reference No. 42.) Better results often are 
obtained by combining cream with vegetables than by using butter 
and milk costing quite as much. 

Whenever a vegetable dish, other than beans, etc., is to be the 
principal part of a meal, it is easily possible, as well as reasonable, to 
increase its food value by the addition of milk, cheese, or eggs. Skim 
milk may be heated uncovered until considerable water has evapo- 
rated, then little or no thickening is needed. (Reference No. 74, 
pp. 42-54, 60-62.) 

For cereals, rice, etc., which are used as vegetables, see Reference 
No. 34, pages 34-37. 

Although almost any vegetable may appear as soup or puree, scal- 
loped, in salad, or as the basis of croquettes, fritters, or souffles, the 
simplest way of preparing each is usually the best to develop its 
natural advantages, and a fair sample of any vegetable is not im- 
proved by overmanipulation or additions that disguise its own flavor. 
Intricate dishes have their place for emergency or variety. If our 
supply of any given vegetable is limited, combinations with other 
materials are in order. When we have an abundance of one kind, 
and it must be our main dependence for weeks, the form of serving 
it must be varied or we grow tired of it. 

Just as one kind of starch may be used in place of another, or as 
the flavor of different varieties of the same family of plants is similar, 
so the pulp and fiber of different plants may be used interchangeably. 
The same general formula will apply to all " cream " vegetable soups, 
and without searching for new recipes we may venture to combine 
two or more vegetables, as beans and squash or potato and turnip, in 
the same soup. 

COMBINATIONS OF VEGETABLES. 

There are many combinations of vegetables which have proved 
satisfactory, and no one need hesitate to experiment with others. In 
general it is safe to combine a starchy vegetable with a succulent one, 
or one lacking in flavor with another that will give relish. 

Cooked celery is agreeable with creamed potato. It may be added 
to Brussels sprouts or cabbage. 

Contrasts in color often add to the value of a compound by making 
it attractive to the eye, as in carrots and green peas. Since some com- 
binations of color arc not considered pleasing, on tlii- basis it IS 
well to beware of serving tomato and red beets together, etc. 

Green corn with potatoes and onion, with the addition of milk, 
etc., makes as good a chowder ns li-di in the opinion of many. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



74 SUMMARY OF COOKERY. 

Potatoes boiled and cut in slices or cubes may be used to extend 
expensive, highly flavored vegetables in salads, etc. 

Potatoes with onions or white turnips make a more agreeable soup 
for some palates than the stronger vegetables alone. 

Carrots often are more palatable cut in dice and blended with 
green peas than served alone. 

Large white beans may be served in a tomato sauce with onion 
and green or red sweet peppers or both. 

Mint, parsley, sweet peppers, onions, etc., may be added in small 
portion to many vegetables to give a new flavor when the usual 
methods of serving have become monotonous. 

UTENSILS USED IN COOKING VEGETABLES. 

The following suggestions as to utensils may be of practical use: 
A small scrubbing brush is essential for Avashing all vegetable- that 
have grown in the earth, and should be kept in a convenient place, 
and for this purpose only. 

Knives of different types are desirable. A small, sharp point is 
needed for the removal of eyes from potatoes and small blemishes 
from any vegetables. 

Fancy cutters are not essential, but convenient, especially when it 
is necessary to give variety to a monotonous diet. 

A wire basket is convenient to hold greens, string beans, or even 
potatoes while cooking, as thus they are less likely to adhere to the 
bottom of the kettle, and often it is easier to remove the basket than 
to drain off the water. 

Colanders, puree strainers, potato ricers, etc., all are helpful in 
washing and straining potatoes, squash, etc. 

A potato masher of strong, continuous wire, the two ends inserted 
in a wooden handle, is inexpensive and fully as satisfactory as a 
more costly style. (Reference No. 68, p. 724.) 

COOKING TERMS. 

A few of the terms indicating the use of vegetables may be of 
service in studying books arranged by chefs and others. 

A la — according to, or in the style of. 

Au gratin — with browned crumbs, as of bread, sometimes with 
cheese. 

Bouquet of herbs — a sprig each of several kinds, as marjoram, 
parsley, savory, thyme. 

Creole or West Indian — with tomatoes, often also peppers, onions, 
and mushrooms. 

Jardiniere — mixed vegetables. 

Macedoine — a medley or mixture of vegetable-, often with meat. 

Maigre — without meat, as vegetable soup. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245 ] 



SUMMAEY OF COOKERY. 75 

Printaniere — a garnish of spring vegetables. 
Puree — material mashed through a strainer. 
Koux — flour browned in butter. 

Souffle — a puff, something inflated or swollen, as by beaten white 
of egg. 

TIME OF COOKING. 

While overdone vegetables are not desirable, underdone ones are 
often even less appetizing, therefore it is wise to start in season and 
stop the process as soon as the plant is tender, and then reheat quickly 
just before serving. Most time-tables in cookbooks do not take into 
consideration the variations in time required for the same kind of 
vegetables at different ages. 

WAYS OF SERVING. « 

Soups. 

This is one of the best ways to use left-over vegetables. A cupful 
of cooked cauliflower with some of the water in which it was cooked 
ithd equal amount of milk and a slight thickening of butter and 
flour will provide a cream of cauliflower soup. If the vegetable 
already has white sauce with it, reduce it with milk to right consist- 
ency, season and strain, and the soup is ready. (Reference No. 73, 
pp. 76-82.) 

A puree is half way between a cream soup and mashed vegetables; 
it is sometimes a thick soup, but oftener strained vegetables made 
soft with milk or stock and butter, and served with meats. (Refer- 
ence Xos. 18, pp. 25, 33 ; 70, p. 300 ; 75, p. 141 ; 98, p. 94.) 

Salads. 

The derivation of the word — something to be eaten with salt — 
shows its original simplicity. (Reference 71.) The young tips or 
tender leaves of certain plants are especially suited to this purpose. 
(See p. 21.) 

Scallops. 

These consist of cooked vegetables with cream sauce, seasoned, 
covered with buttered crumbs and browned in the oven. The pro- 
portion and thickness of sauce varies with the dryness of the vegeta- 
ble, usually half as much sauce as vegetable, in the case of cabbage or 

onions. 

Fritters. 

Many vegetables, partially cooked, may be dipped in batter and 

fried in deep fat, (1ms giving variety and adding material of a dif- 
ferent type from their constituents. (See Reference Nbs. 69, pp, 
100, 107: To. pp. .".is 357.) Among the vegetables besl adapted to 
this process are cauliflower, celery, corn, okra, and salsify. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bnl. 245.] 



76 SUMMARY OF COOKERY. 

Croquettes. 

These may be made from mashed vegetables held together with a 
small proportion of beaten egg or from chopped, cooked vegetables 
combined with a thick cream sauce. There is justification for the 
additional time required for this process when left overs can be 
thus used economically or when variety is needed. 

Frying. 

Parsley, " the crown of cookery," may be drained on towel, shaken 
to remove moisture, and fried 40 seconds in deep fat. (Reference 
No. 34, pp. 68, 73.) 

From the potato cake or croquette it is but a short step to a potato 
crust for a meat pie (Reference No. 88, p. 46), or from the corn frit- 
ter to the tortilla and thus to doughs. (Reference No. 91, pp. 248- 
250.) 

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICE WORK, ELEVENTH LECTURE, 

Material needed. — Take vegetables not previously used in the practice lessons 
and prepare them in any of the standard forms. 

Use any formula proved successful for some vegetable, and substitute another 
vegetable with due variation in other ingredients to adapt the formula to the 
composition of the substitute. For example, a cream soup may be made with 
any cooked and strained vegetable pulp, but if in one case it is potato with 
much starch and little flavor, little thickening and more seasoning will be 
needed ; while another time, with celery or onion, more thickening and less 
added flavor will be required. 

Exercise. — Make two green pea soups, using for one the dry split green peas 
at about 14 cents per quart, and for the other canned green peas at the same 
price per can. Count cost of materials, time, and fuel in each case. 

For variations on these foundations, see Reference No. 78. 

Verify and compare tables of weigbts and measures. (Reference No. 34, p. 
33.) See also Reference No. 70, pp. 28, 54. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, ELEVENTH LECTURE. 

1. Briefly describe the principal processes of cooking vegetables. 

2. What general preparation would be common to all methods? 

3. When may it be advisable to cook a double portion of any vegetable? 

4. How shall we decide what materials to add to a vegetable in its prepara- 
tion for the table? 

5. What types of knives are most helpful in preparing vegetables? Describe 
different processes requiring different motions. 

6. Some vegetables should be scraped, others pared. Give examples. 

7. Describe several utensils helpful in preparation of vegetables. 

8. Suggest combinations of vegetables and explain why they are acceptable. 

9. Give general plan for making soups from one kind of vegetable. Mention 
combinations that might be used in the same way. 

10. Describe process of making croquettes or some scalloped vegetable. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245. J 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

TWELFTH LECTURE— DRYING, EVAPORATING, AND SALTING 
VEGETABLES. 

Most foods are best when fresh, but since they can not always be 
had in this condition, some means must be found for preserving them. 
Decay in fruit or vegetables with its accompanying changes of tex- 
ture and flavor is caused by the development of bacteria, molds, and 
other low forms of life. The various methods of preserving are 
simply means of checking the growth of these microorganisms. The 
first step should be to protect the material from unnecessary contami- 
nation from them, but since they are everywhere present in the air, 
even the most scrupulous cleanliness is hardly sufficient alone. 

Most of the microorganisms grow only in the presence of moisture, 
and this fact explains the method of preserving by means of drying. 
(Eeference No. 59, pp. 141-148.) 

DRYING AND EVAPORATING FOODS. 

The drying of foods has been practiced by primitive people from 
the beginning of civilization and is only aiding nature's processes. 
The seeds dry as they ripen and berries dry on the bushes. The 
Indians preserved blueberries and other fruits in this way. Pumpkin 
was often dried in strips by our colonial grandmothers, and sections 
of apple were strung and hung where they would dry readily. The 
bulk and weight of such foods is much less than in their natural 
condition, hence less room is required for storage and much less labor 
is involved in their transportation from place to place. 

Herbs and spices were gathered, dried, and used to aid in the pres- 
ervation of other foods. There was a right time for gathering each 
plant, it was believed, and in this lore ancient housekeepers were far 
more interested than modern ones. 

Dried lavender, sweet grass, clover, and rose petals have from time 
immemorial been used by housewives to give perfume in their linen 
chests. 

Dates, figs, and raisins long have been considered important foods 
for the traveler and explorer, containing valuable food material in 
concentrated and convenient form. 

Modern evaporated fruits and vegetables differ from dried, simply 
in that the process is shortened, and there is loss opportunity lor fer- 
mentation, darkening, or the accumulation of dirt (Reference No. 
59, pp. 141-148.) 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



78 DRYING, EVAPORATING, AND SALTING VEGETABLES. 

Tomatoes may be cooked, strained, and evaporated to a thick paste 
resembling beef extracts in texture. In this form they are found in 
Italian markets. 

Dried mushrooms are another commodity found in the foreign 
shops, which we might well learn to use. 

Dried fruits and vegetables are less expensive than canned, mainly 
because they have required less labor in preparation and transporta- 
tion than the canned. (Eeference No. 52.) Their value is not gen- 
erally appreciated, partly because they are cheaper and partly because 
the older dried products wefe often damaged by dust and insect.-, and 
because sufficient attention is not given to freshening them. Some 
good modern methods of drying and marketing are perfectly sani- 
tary, and so far as chemists are able to tell us, a dried plum, peach, 
or vegetable, properly soaked and cooked, is just as valuable a food 
as a fresh one similarly cooked. 

A homemade drier is a desirable appliance for the possessor of a 
good vegetable garden. A simple form consists of trays in a holder; 
four strong, upright, wooden supports, connected by horizontal bars, 
will hold several trays at once. The trays are made like window- 
screen frames and may be covered with wire netting for some things. 
but cheesecloth is preferable. The supports should be tipped at the 
base with a large nail or piece of metal that they may safely rot on 
the back of the stove when sunlight is not available. Shelled beans 
and green peas may be dried in this fashion. Some find it an advan- 
tage to scald them in boiling water before drying. Sweet corn should 
be slightly cooked, cut from the cob, and spread in very thin layers 
on the cheesecloth. Corn on the cob may be dried after scalding. 

Small quantities of vegetables may be evaporated on earthen plates 
set over a kettle of boiling water or in an afternoon oven. While dry- 
ing, they may hang in cheesecloth bags at the top of a warm closet 
"When very thoroughly dried, put away in tin boxes or glass jars. 

PRESERVING BY SALTING. 

The addition of salt indicates a step forward in the art of preserv- 
ing food. The salt of the sea and the smoke of the camp fire were 
ready at hand for the first man intelligent or observant enough to 
make use of them. 

Salt hastens the drying process by drawing out water from the 
vegetable tissues, making them firmer; it is also injurious to bacterial 
life. Young cucumbers and other green vegetables often are packed 
in salt as they are gathered and then kept until a convenient time 
comes for their further preparation for pickles. Greens, string beans. 
and similar vegetables used to be packed in salt like young cucumbers. 
Thoroughly freshened in the winter, they afford an agreeable variety. 
Now canned vegetables are more convenient. 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 243.] 



DRYING, EVAPORATING, AND SALTING VEGETABLES. 79 

Smoking is very commonly combined with drying and salting as a 
means of preserving foods, but almost exclusively with meats and 
fish. Dried smoked pears and other fruits are, however, not uncom- 
mon in some parts of Germany. 

Sauerkraut, a German preparation of cabbage, is evidently the 
survival of an ancient way of preserving the vegetable. The process 
is somewhat akin to the ensiling of forage for animals. (Reference 
Nos. 59, p. 166; 103, pp. 213-216.) Firm cabbages are sliced and 
packed in salt, sometimes a few cloves, etc., are added, the mass is 
pressed down solidly under a weighted cover. After a time a partial 
fermentation takes place, the liquid is poured off and more salt and 
water added. The acid developed by the fermentation works upon 
the tough fibers, making them more tender. The sauerkraut is kept in 
a cool place and cooked as needed, like fresh cabbage. Dill pickles 
are made with cucumbers packed in a similar way, the cucumbers 
being flavored with dill. From similar methods our other types of 
pickles may have been evolved. 

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICE WORK, TWELFTH LECTURE. 
Drying Vegetable Substances. 

Materials needed. — Frames covered with cheesecloth or white mosquito net- 
ting; these may be sections of boxes, even of heavy pasteboard. 

Exercises. — The essentials in drying vegetables are cleanliness, heat, and 
circulation of air. The more rapid the process the less the danger of bacteria, 
ferments, and molds. 

(1) Arrange part of the vegetables on the frame and expose in current of air, 
or place part in a very moderate oven with the door open, or in upper portion 
of an uncovered double boiler, and compare the results. 

(2) Place pieces of different thickness side by side and dry under the same 
conditions. Cut a carrot in fancy shapes and dry for soup garnish. 

(3) If possible, try (a) green or undeveloped tissues, (b) fully grown or ripe 
and overripe; compare results. 

(4) Weigh and measure vegetables or fruits as purchased; weigh and meas- 
ure after process of evaporation is completed. 

(5) Dry parsley; note effect of too much heat in change of color. When dry. 
rub through strainer and use like fresh chopped parsley. Plunge in boiling 
water before drying and compare result with other not so treated. 

(6) Try experiments with thick sections or with thin ones placed over each 
other, exposed to dust where process must be slow, without sun or heat, and 
note results. (Reference No. 71.) 

(7) Test effect of alcohol, oil, vinegar, sugar, salt, and spice separately, and 
two or three together on similar sections of the same fruit or vegetable, raw 
and cooked. 

(8) Test effect on similar sections from the same article, thus: (a) In refrig- 
erator; (b) in sunlight; (o) in moderate oven ; id) in dusly room. 

Restoring Dried Foods to their Original Conditions. 

Reverse the experiments just described by the use of dry vegetables and 
fruits, such as evaporated apples, beans, cherries, peas, poaches, prunes, sweet 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 246. ] 



80 DRYING, EVAPORATING, AND SALTING VEGETABLES. 

corn, and the dry Julienne (mixed vegetables) which comes prepared for soups. 
Weigh and measure these as purchased; weigh and measure after soaking. 
Make tea, unroll the leaves and note shape; make teas from herbs. 

Nuts are a type of dry or condensed foods which may be studied in this 
connection. 

Exercise. — Take 1 pound of mixed nuts in shells, or i pound each of any avail- 
able kinds. Weigh before and after shelling. Note composition of each type. 
(Reference Nos. 20; 30.) Suggest additions and combinations with other food 
materials to dilute the nuts aud make a food which in composition might be 
similar to a meat and potato hash or legumes stewed with pork. (Reference 
No. 75, pp. 10, 18, 32, 33, 41, 42.) 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, TWELFTH LECTURE. 

1. What objects are sought in the preservation of vegetables? 

2. Describe methods used before the process of canning was discovered. 

3. Explain the effect of air and sunlight on canned -foods. 

4. Mention appliances helpful in any processes of preservation of vegetables. 

5. Explain the action of salt, sugar, spice, oil, vinegar, alcohol on vegetable 
tissues. 

0. Contrast processes of drying and canning, giving the relative merits of 
each. 

7. How is the large percentage of water in vegetables shown in any method 
of preservation? 

8. What is the relative proportion of nut meats to shell, both as to bulk and 
weight? 

9. Mention points for and against buying shelled nuts or seeded raisins, eta 

10. Estimating cost of jars, fuel, etc., allowing a fair price for your own labor. 
what does it cost you per jar to can your own fruits and vegetables? How Sofia 
this compare with drying? 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

THIRTEENTH LECTURE— PRESERVING AND CANNING VEGE- 
TABLES. 

The home canning of fruits and vegetables is a matter of more 
importance to those who grow such products than to those who must 
buy them in any case. The cost of labor and fuel, added to the cost 
of the raw material, makes it wiser for many -to buy the canned 
article. But there is no question that the surplus products of the 
home garden should be preserved in some form for future use. The 
publications cited in Reference Nos. 11 and 27 treat different phases 
of this subject fully and can be used as textbooks for this lesson. See 
also Reference No. 9. 

The essential points in all canning are few — absolute cleanliness 
and sterilization and suitable containers, which means the destruction 
and exclusion of ferments, molds, and bacteria. (Reference Xos. 59, 
Ch. XII; 72, pp. 284-288; 74, pp. 34-38.) 

Poisonous or doubtful preservatives never should be used. Long 
use has so accustomed us to the use of sugar, salt, vinegar, and spices 
that we forget that flavor is secondary to their preservative effect. 
(Reference Nos. 27, p. 8; 59, pp. 157-162.) 

A practical point worth remembering is that 1 quart by measure 
means 1 pound in weight with many of the green vegetables and 
fruits. For serving or canning it is well to remember also that 1 
quart of average substances as purchased will be required to fill a 
pint jar or dish, the shrinkage being due to loose measure, removal 
of uneatable portions, and condensation in cooking. 

PRESERVING WITH SUGAR. 

The earliest method of preserving fruit aside from drying appears 
to have been to coat it with honey and allow it. to dry somewhat. 
From that may have been derived the plan of packing in jars and 
filling the spaces with strained honey. This might have been the 
result of observation of the way in which (lowers, etc. accidentally 
coated with honey retained their original freshness. In any case ii 
was unconscious application of the fact that bacteria and molds do 
not grow readily in the presence of concentrated sugar solutions. 
(Reference Xos. :>!>. pp. L62-165; 100.) 

Preserving with sugar i-. of course, more important for fruits than 
for vegetables, hut is worth consideration here, partly because it 

L4579 fl -Bui. 246— 12 M 

I \ ejjetnbli> I' Is, Itul. :M.->.] 



82 PRESEEVING AND CANNING VEGETABLES. 

shows an important principle in the general science of food preserva- 
tion, and partly because a few vegetables are sometimes put up in 
sugar. 

Dates, figs, grapes, and other fruits rich in sugar have always been 
known to keep well when only partially dried, and others less sweet 
have been dried with the addition of a little sugar. The old-fash- 
ioned New England custom of drying wild raspberries with maple 
sugar is an illustration of the latter, and also of how necessity some- 
times leads to the discovery of pleasant flavor combinations. 

Although sugar is a good preservative against bacteria and molds, 
it is not so efficient against the yeasts which cause fermentation ; hence 
the occasional " spoiling " of even fairly sweet fruit preserves and the 
need of keeping them in clean, tight jars. 

If the products commonly classed as vegetables were preserved 
in sugar, their sweetness would spoil them for their ordinary uses in 
the bill of fare. Where fruits are scarce and expensive women have 
been ingenious in the use of vegetables in place of them. Thus the 
seed vessels of roses are sometimes made into preserves in northern 
Europe. Pumpkin, squash, carrot, even beet and cabbage are used 
in this way and flavored with lemon, ginger, etc. Certain kinds of to- 
matoes, also, such as the yellow plum variety, are frequently preserved 
in sugar, but they are so sweet in this form that they are used as a 
dessert rather than in the meat or salad course. Small quantities of 
sugar are sometimes used in canning such vegetables as green corn 
and peas. 

Since sugar and other sweetening materials are of vegetal >le origin. 
they may be briefly mentioned here. (Reference Nos. 4, 6, 15, 104.) 
Honey already has been considered among the flowers (see p. 50). 
Maple sirup and sugar making were known to the Indians, who 
recognized. a "sugar-making moon" in the spring. A study of the 
history of methods of condensing the sirup, from the primitive appli- 
ances of a century ago to the improved evaporations of the present, 
would be of interest and suggest possible advance in household 
methods of cookery. 

Cane sugar is a popular and valuable food, and its use appears to 
be increasing everywhere. But there are limits to human capacity. 
and some physiologists believe that its consumption should not much 
exceed 1 pound per person per week. (Reference No. 4. p. :27.) 

Granulated and other white sugars are the most important prod- 
ucts of sugar cane, but brown sugars and molasses also play a useful 
part, not only in those sections of the Southern States where molasses 
is a large factor of the diet, but also in general cooking. The old- 
fashioned somewhat acid molasses was the result of evaporation in 
open kettles, a process rarely followed now. 

[Vegetable Foods. Bui. 245.] 



PRESERVING AND CANNING VEGETABLES. 83 

During the last half century there has been a marked increase in 
the production of sugar from special varieties of beets. So far as 
the chemist can discern, this sugar is identical with that made from 
sugar cane. 

Kegarding corn sirups, glucose, etc., see Kef erence Nos. 4, page 9 ; 
23, pages 14, 15. 

Sorghum sirup is less used since corn sirups have been manu- 
factured. 

The evaporation of water in which sweet vegetables like carrots, 
green peas, or squash have been boiled would yield a sweet sirup. 

PRESERVING BY STERILIZATION CANNING. 

In ordinary sweet preserves the heat of cooking may increase their 
keeping qualities by killing some or all of the microorganisms pres- 
ent in the raw material. It has been shown that such sterilization 
is one of the reasons for cooking vegetables (see p. 71). It is the 
most important factor in canning vegetables, whether in the home or 
in the factory. (Reference No. 59, pp. 169-181.) 

Prolonged or extreme heating tends to change the flavor and tex- 
ture of foods, sometimes for the worse. The best method of canning, 
therefore, will be the one which kills the most of the undesirable 
microorganisms while it occasions the least injury to the material. 
Whatever method is used, the receptacles in which the food is put 
must be sterilized as carefully as the food and finally closed so tightly 
that no fresh organisms can find entrance. 

The method known as intermittent or fractional sterilization usu- 
ally answers all these conditions. Its success seems to depend on two 
facts, first, that more heat is required to kill some of the spores of 
the microorganisms than the organisms themselves, and second, that 
these spores become full-fledged organisms within a short period (say 
24 hours) after they have been subjected to heat sufficient to kill the 
parent organisms. When this method is followed the vegetables are 
put in jars; the rubber rings and glass covers are laid on but not 
clamped; sterilized water is added, and the jars heated to the boiling 
point of water for about an hour; then the jar is fastened. This 
process is repeated with clasps up 24 hours later, and again the third 
day. (Reference Nos. 27, pp. 7, 15, 1G, 19; 58.) 

For a continuous process a longer time is required. String beans, 
etc., should strain 3 to 5 hours in the jars and be tested before being 
put away. To test them, unclamp the jar and lift by the cover: if 
the contents are not satisfactorily sterilized, the cover will come off. 

Where the source of the vegetables is uncertain it is a safeguard 
to blanch or parboil them in well-salted water and drain thoroughly 
before packing them in the jars for cither the fractional or the con- 
tinuous process. A -mall quantity of cooking soda may be added 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



84 PRESERVING AND CANNING VEGETABLES. 

to the water in which string beans are parboiled and which is not 
used in the canning process. As vegetables are salted before serving, 
from 1 teaspoon to 1 tablespoon of salt is frequently added to each jar. 

The relative economy of the use of fresh vegetables and canned 
ones involves many problems, including convenience, value of time 
and labor, as well as variety and quality of the foods. 

Compare canned green peas with fresh ones in the pods out 
of season and the advantage is with those from the can as to quality 
as well as cost. But canned or fresh at the lowest rates for either are 
expensive compared with the amount of nutriment obtainable for the 
same money from the dry green or split yellow peas. 

To illustrate this matter in detail: A 15-cent (pint) can of Lima 
beans yielded 150 beans. The same number of dry beans at 9 cents 
per pound weighed 5£ ounces, or one-third of a pound, and measured 
less than 1 cup. The dry beans would cost 3 or 4 cents; with a fair 
allowance for labor and fuel the total cost would be less than half 
that of the canned beans and the qualit} 7 much better. 

The larger the family the greater the gain in the use of the dried 
beans, for even at wholesale rates the cost of the cans would be 
greater than that of dry beans plus the labor and fuel required for 
the preparation of the latter. 

Because this happens in one instance it does not follow that it will 
in others. Some of these questions, as that of canned beet- versus 
fresh, etc., may be worked out in the practice period. In general 
it will prove that the fresh vegetable directly from the garden in its 
season is always superior to the canned, and that a dried fruit or vege- 
table properly soaked and cooked will rival all but the very highest 
grades of canned foods of the same kind. 

" Canned vegetables are relatively free from adulterations by 
means of foreign substances. The different grades of products may 
with care be readily detected by the general appearance of the mani- 
ple." (Reference No. 43, p. 48.) 

To use canned vegetables, open an hour or more. before using; 
empty the can as soon as opened and expose the contents to the air 
to freshen. To freshen quickly, drain the vegetables and rinse with 
cold water. Taste of the liquor in the can and use or discard as 
seems best; do not keep it long after opening. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, THIRTEENTH LECTURE, 

Action of Bacteria. Molds, etc. 

(Reference N<>. 71. experiments 41. -12.) 

Exercise*. — Expose bread, cheese, fruit juices, cut raw and cooked vegetables, 
milk, etc., to dusty air, and leave for some linn-; note changes in each. Note the 
cloudy appearance of fruit sirup, Indicating presence of bacteria. Scald the 
fruit, remove scum, and sirup will be seen to be clear again. 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui, 215.] 



PKESERVING AND CANNING VEGETABLES. 85 

Leave stewed fruit in glass jar uncovered. Note the difference in lower por- 
tions which do not come in contact with air. After a time, stir slightly so that 
part of top layer is distributed throughout the jar. Note the groups of bac- 
teria, etc., forming where portions of the top layer remain. 

Note the need of sterilization of jelly bags, jars, utensils, and the danger 
from sweeping, dust from open window, etc. 

Sugar. 

An entire lesson might be given to a study of sugar and the way it is affected 
by heat and moisture. (Reference No. 34, p. 69.) 

Caramelization, etc. : Try experiments 41 and 42. (Reference No. 71, p. 48.) 
With a sirup gauge, experiment with sirups of different densities. (Refer- 
ence No. 11.) 

Canning. 

Materials needed. — Any vegetables available, including tomatoes, either fresh 
or canned ; apple or green grape jelly, fresh mint, spinach extract for coloring 
(p. 20). Several types and sizes of jars. 

Exercises. — (1) Can any available fresh vegetable. (Reference No. 11, p. 5.) 

(2) When fresh tomatoes are not available, open a quart can, reheat and 
seal part in half-pint jar. This is a practical point for the small family where 
a larger can is too much to use at once. Another portion of the tomato may 
be strained and canned in a half-pint jar. The remainder, strained, may be 
evaporated to half its first bulk, seasoned with spices, salt, and vinegar, and 
put in bottles as catsup. Note whether varying the kind of spices and the pro- 
portion of vinegar affects the flavor materially. (Reference Nos. 11; 71, pp. 
50, 51; 72, pp. 259-264.) 

(3) Note results with different types of jars. Have different sorts of tops 
any special advantages? Why are good rubber rings essential? 

Another lesson on this general subject might deal with the use of canned 
foods, as already indicated in Lecture 7 with the tomato (p. 53). Cream 
soups may be made from canned tomato, peas, asparagus, etc. Scalloped tomato 
and corn fritters are other dishes in which small quantities of canned vegeta- 
bles may be utilized. For ways of avoiding waste in preparing vegetables for 
canning, etc., see Reference No. 27, page 15. This may suggest other possible 
combinations for soups, salads, etc., not already covered in other lessons. 

Combinations of highly flavored fruits with others of different flavor, or 
sometimes of less distinctive taste, are by no means uncommon. Thus, house- 
wives often combine raspberries and currants for jolly making or for canning. 
Another combination, which may prove useful if lessons arc given at seasons 
when fresh berries and fruits can not readily be procured, is raisins, orange, 
and cranberry. The proportion is a matter of taste, so it is well for pupils to 
use different quantities and compare results. 

[n "id domestic recipes, quinces are often combined with sweet apples which 
have little distinctive flavor or with pears of Arm texture and also lacking In 
this quality. The relative proportions of the two fruits is a matter of prefer- 
ence, the greater the proportion of quinces, the higher the flavor. 

Such preserves can l>e made by the student If time permits. Note the 

texture of the different fruits when cooked. 
Experiment with vegetable pulp like sifted squash, pumpkin, sweet potato, 

Or tomato as a basis for marmalade, with flavor supplied l.y spice or a small 

proportion of high-flavored fruit like aprlcol or quince 
[Vegetable Poods, Bnl. 245.] 



86 PRESERVING AND CANNING VEGETABLES. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, THIRTEENTH LECTURE. 

1. What kind of kettles would you choose for canniug, and why? 

2. What is the aim of this plan of preservation? 

3. Has any case in your own experience shown the importance of steriliza- 
tion? 

4. Describe fractional sterilization. 

5. Give an outline of the process of canning based on your own cx]>orience. 

6. How would you estimate shrinkage between market and Jars, Including 
imperfect vegetables, necessary refuse, effect of cooking, etc.? 

7. What fruits and vegetables do you can at home? 

8. What do you find it wiser to buy, and why? 

9. Give details of relative cost to you of buying tomatoes to can yourself <>r 
buying them already canned. 

10. Does this lesson explain any failures that have troubled you? 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

FOURTEENTH LECTURE— PICKLING VEGETABLES. 
VINEGAR. 

Vinegar is another substance which acts as a food preservative. 
Its name means " sour wine," and at least when a domestic product 
it is usually made from cider or light wine, in which bacteria give 
rise to fermentation and the production of acetic acid. (Reference 
No. 60, p. 275.) This acid gives the vinegar its sour taste, and is 
very unfavorable to the growth of bacteria. "When vinegar is used 
in pickle making, the hard fibers of undeveloped vegetables, vegetable 
skins, etc., are softened by it. Spices and salt have much the same 
effect as vinegar on bacteria, though in a different degree. These 
preservatives, of course, entirely change the flavor of food in which 
they are used, and usually set it among the condimental materials. 
(Reference Nos. 39, p. 29; 59, pp. 165-168; 61, pp. 140-142; 63, pp. 
60-62, 68-74; 71, p. 48; 74, p. 33; 85, chs. 16, 17.) 

HERB VINEGARS. 

Herb vinegars are useful for the housekeeper's store closet, as by 
their means a new flavor is easity added to a salad sauce. These may 
be prepared either in Lesson 10 or here by steeping fresh or dried 
herbs in cold or hot vinegar. The more delicate flavors may be lost 
by heating, but the cold process is slower. 

PICKLES AND SAUCES. 

The word " pickle " is applied to the process of preserving foods, 
either with salt or vinegar, or both. Thus, meats are pickled in 
brine, either a saturated solution of salt and water or the water which 
the dry salt draws out of the foods themselves, which arc often 
three-quarters or more water. When the term is applied to vege- 
table foods, it is commonly understood to mean preservation with 
vinegar, either with or without the addition of other materials, as 
salt, spices, or sugar. In some cases as in dill pickle making, the 
acid is supplied by the fermentation of the product itself and not 
by adding vinegar. The Dumber and variety of fruits and vegetables 
used in pickle making is almost endless, cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, 
and green or unripe fruits being most common. 

s-7 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. ^45.] 



88 PICKLING VEGETABLES. 

An old household name for pickles in which the flavor of vinegar 
predominates is " sour pickles." Those in which spices are particu- 
larly noticeable are frequently spoken of as " spiced pickles " or 
" spiced fruits," and those in which sugar predominates as " sweet 
pickles." 

The transition is gradual from the acid fruits preserved with sugar 
Tind spice to the sweet pickles where somewhat tasteless vegetable tis- 
sue has been filled with vinegar instead of natural fruit aci<l ami 
spiced and sweetened. 

By using them for pickle making our thrifty foremothers con- 
trived to make attractive most unpromising food materials as well 
as common fruits, etc., for instance, the rinds of the watermelon, the 
unripe windfalls from the fruit tree, martynias, cucumbers, ripe 
tomatoes, and the green tomatoes remaining when frost had killed 
the vines. Even young ears of corn 2 or 3 inches long are used for 
pickles. Though the kernels have already formed, the cobs are tender 
and will absorb the vinegar. 

Some materials are more satisfactory for pickle making if first 
soaked in salt water to extract acrid flavors. Special treatment of 
this sort is required with such materials as green melons, but with 
the more common fruits and vegetables used in pickle making there 
seems to be little difference in results, whether they are soaked over- 
night in that fashion or whether they are parboiled in salt water. 
Ity either process some water is extracted from the tissues, which are 
then ready to fill out with the prepared vinegar. 

Old recipes for pickle making sometimes call for ingredient- not 
now recommended. The use of alum to insure crispness or a brass 
kettle to " green " the pickles can not be advised. In these days when 
fresh fruit from all over the world comes to our doors, are we justi- 
fied in spending much time to provide many jars of highly seasoned 
condiments for ourselves or our neighbors? This is a question the 
housewife should consider. 

When the materials used in pickle making are so finely divided 
that the resulting product is a more or less thick fluid, they are usually 
called " catsups " or " sauces." 

Tomato is a favorite foundation, but many fruits may be cooked 
and strained for this purpose; decayed ones never should be used. 

There are hosts of table sauces which, by their names, seem to be 
derived from the Orient. Consult a dictionary for the origin of 
some of these words: Catsup or ketchup, chili sauce, chowchow, 
chutney, etc., which are made in many ways from diverse materials. 

CARE OF PICKLED AND CANNED GOODS. 

Any canned foods or pickles should be well cared for. The ~t.>n<> 
jars with more or less tightly fitting co\ ers used by our grandmothers 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



PICKLING VEGETABLES. 89 

may serve for very sweet or for highly seasoned material, but the 
glass or other jars with air-tight covers are more satisfactory for all 
purposes. Each household should have several sizes. Often a large 
jar is opened and not half its contents used. The remainder can be 
reheated and again canned in a smaller jar. All jars should be 
carefully labeled. When one lot of pickles has been used, the vine- 
gar still may serve for partial preparation of another vegetable. The 
spiced sweet pickle vinegar is usable in several other ways; prunes 
or beets may be put into it or it may be used in mince pies or stiffened 
with gelatin to serve with meats. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FOURTEENTH LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — The materials for this lesson will depend on season and 
locality. Cabbage and onions usually will be available if nothing else is at 
hand. Citron melon, watermelon rinds, and green tomatoes are excellent for 
such lessons. 

Simple Pickles. 

A simple type of pickling may be observed by grating horseradish or putting 
it through the food grinder and combining it with sufficient vinegar to 
moisten it. 

Beets cooked in Lecture S (p. 47) might be kept in vinegar until this lesson. 
If the jars were not entirely closed, mold may have formed on the top and 
yet the beets below be in good condition. They now might be put in a spiced 
sweetened vinegar, scalded to sterilize them, and canned. 

Combination in Pickling. 

Almost any combination of onions, peppers, and tomatoes, ripe or green, will 
form an acceptable relish with vinegar and spices. The basis of the pickles 
may be of one kind or several, but in the latter case each should be parboiled 
separately, or some may be hard while others are overcooked. 

Exercise. — Collect personal and family recipes for all types of pickles and 
refer to standard cookbooks dealing with the subject. With the aid of the 
blackboard, reduce these formulas to their lowest terms and arrange in tabular 
form. 

It will surprise the pupils to see how many recipes for sweet pickles may he 
condensed to some such form as this: For 2 pounds of prepared vegetables or 
fruit, 1 pound of sugar (or less), one-half pint vinegar, 1 ounce mixed spice. 

The usual sauce for mustard pickles is some variation of this formula : 
Mix one-fourth to one-hair cup sugar with l ounce ground mustard and 2 table- 
spoonfuls flour. Stir into 1 pint hot vinegar and cook until thickened. Tur- 
meric may he added i<> give color. Combine with i quart mixed vegetables 
parboiled. Note resemblance between salads with cooked dressing and mustard 
plcklea 

Salad oil, such as olive oil, cottonseed oil, or peanul oil. in small proportion 
is often added to mixed pickles oi- poured over the top after they are put in 
jars ti> protect them from the air and prevenl the growth of molds. 

To show thai the natural acid of sonic fruits may have I he same antiseptic 

effect as vinegar, pul cranberries or rhubarb in sterile jars: mi the jars with 

clear, freshly sterilized water and seal; time will show thai the frnii keeps as 
well this way as if cooked. 

[Vegetable Poods, Bui. 245.] 



90 PICKLING VEGETABLES. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, FOURTEENTH LECTURE. 

1. Define pickles. 

2. What are the essential steps in the process of pickling? 

3. Describe the making of sweet pickles. 

4. Mention some names of products of this type which indicate a universal 
demand for such foods. 

5. Is there any reason why pickles and relishes should be less important to us 
than to our grandmothers? 

6. Why is vinegar useful as a preservative? 

7. Are any fruits or vegetables ever pickled without vinegar? 

8. What may be combined with vinegar to give it greater efficiency? 

9. What need of caution in selecting utensils for pickle, making. 

10. Are exact recipes essential in the preparation of pickles? 
[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



COURSE IN VEGETABLE FOODS. 

FIFTEENTH LECTURE— VEGETABLES FOR THE TABLE: 
MARKETING. 

Savages found their food where they could and pursued game from 
place to place. Nomadic tribes required a large area to sustain a 
small population. The fixed hearthstone and planting of seeds were 
higher steps on the ladder of civilization; grazing succeeded the 
chase as a method of supplying food, and grazing and crop raising 
combined are the foundations of agriculture. We do not yet know 
the possibilities of intensive farming in the development of the food 
supply. Moreover, the skilled efforts of the farmer must be supple- 
mented by equal intelligence on the part of the cook who handles 
his products. 

CULTIVATING VEGETABLES FOR THE TABLE. 

There is an increasing attention given to the cultivation of vege- 
table foods, with the result that the quality is better and the texture 
less fibrous. Less attention evidently is being given in this country 
to production of cakes and pastries, and the per capita consumption 
of flour appears to be diminishing as coarser cereals, fruits, and vege- 
tables are used more. Some time ago the editor of a hotel periodical 
gave a summary of many holiday menu cards to show that vege- 
table dishes were not given the attention or prominence they de- 
served; that chefs were inclined to ignore common and inexpensive 
foods; and that if care were taken to make such foods attractive the 
hotel and restaurant patrons would be educated to prefer them to 
the superfluity of meat dishes usually provided. 

"The result of this, in these days of high prices for all foods, is 
that the cost of the meals as a whole would be lessened. * * * It 
is these dishes that are wanted to give variety to the bills of fare 
and do away with that ' sameness' in hotel cuisine noticeable through- 
out this most prolific laud/' This is quite as true of the home table. 

Farmers are lx?ginning to see more profit in the intensive cultiva- 
tion of choice vegetables (linn in larger acreage of less profitable 
crops. Too often a type of plant is chosen for its shipping or keep- 
ing qualities rather than for flavor and texture. The improved qual- 
ity of fruits and vegetables gained by improved methods in agri- 
culture is often more than otl'set by earelessness in packing. Good 
varieties should be grown by the best methods and handled and 
shipped so that they recall the consumer in satisfactory condition. 

m 
I Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



92 VEGETABLES FOR THE TABLE: MARKETING. 

What is needed is greater knowledge on the part of the producer 
of the relative values of different varieties of the same plant, while 
the consumers must be discriminating in the selection of the special 
article for a given purpose or know in what way the available mate- 
rial can best be utilized. 

The housekeeper unfamiliar with the country garden hardly knows 
when a vegetable is at its best, and may buy them at abnormal prices 
out of season and rely on canned vegetables when "natives" are 
abundant. Easy transportation, cold storage, and cultivation under 
glass have changed the times and seasons to a great extent, and while 
this is often an advantage, still we do not have the same desire or 
appetite for foods attainable at any time as we do when their season 
is short. Producer and consumer should confer f requentl}" to secure 
better food for all and better methods for its transportation and use. 

Cold storage has advantages, but often is carried so far that there 
is distinct loss of quality or flavor or both. (Reference No. 28, p. 27.) 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

There is need everywhere of enforcing definite standards of meas- 
ure and weight, especially in cities where the average portion sold 
is small; the arithmetic of the vegetable markets is confusing, and 
more uniform methods of measuring market produce should be 
adopted. For example, sometimes onions are sold by the quart, some- 
times by the pound or by the bunch. Four or six or more may consti- 
tute a bunch of beets or young turnips, etc., with little regard to the 
size of the individual roots. 

In many States a legal weight to the bushel has been established 
for the standard common A^egetables ; thus a bushel of potatoes should 
weigh 60 pounds; white beans, 60 pounds; carrots and parsnips. 50 
pounds; turnips, 55 pounds; onions, 57 pounds, or about 2 pounds 
to the quart. 

TRADE CUSTOMS AND MARKET CONDITIONS. - 

Certain trade customs tend to foster ignorance of the best 
for each vegetable and the best way to use it. A premium ha- been 
placed on bulk rather than quality, size rather than flavor. Why 
should not summer squashes and cucumbers be sold by weight as 
well as winter squashes? Most of those in the markets now arc over- 
grown. Asparagus 8 or 10 inches long is less desirable than if 
it had been cut a day earlier at half the length. The custom of 
keeping asparagus fresh in water increases its weight by absorption 
of water, but causes loss of nitrogenous and mineral matter. Celery 
should not have its roots spoiled by nails pr its stalks bound with 
colored strings. (Reference No. 04, pp. 15, 16.) 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



VEGETABLES FOR THE TABLE: MARKETING. 93 

The medicinal qualities of vegetables need fuller investigation. 
Money spent for scientific research in establishing or refuting tradi- 
tional and popular ideas about the effects of celery in rheumatism, 
onions for sleeplessness, etc., should give good returns. Probably in 
most cases green vegetables and salad plants would prove more use- 
ful than " spring medicine," in which so many have faith. 

There are times when it is justifiable to pay a larger price for 
a food than its actual nutritive value seems to warrant because 
its attractive appearance and flavor will make palatable the more 
familiar and less costly foods. 

The wise buyer knows the nature of each article so well that when 
strict economy is practiced decayed vegetables are discarded, while 
those only slightly withered but so unattractive as to be low priced 
are secured and promptly freshened. (Keference No. 75, p. 281.) 

The prices of vegetables in city markets seem exorbitant to those 
who have never had to pay cash for such products, and then only is 
the home garden fully appreciated. (Reference Nos. 18; 45, pp. 201, 
202.) Too often in the country the garden is neglected that " money 
crops " may have more attention because its economic value is not 
recognized. A garden plat intelligently arranged and its products 
properly prepared for the table, often yields more profit than any 
corresponding area on a farm. 

At the present time the list of vegetables which may be grown is a 
long one and is being added to as new plants are found or new 
varieties produced. Some of the novel plants recently brought to 
this country for experiment by the Department of Agriculture are 
the " udo," a salad plant from Japan ; Hungarian paprika ; the 
dasheen; and the adsuki bean. 

The future, judging from the recent past, will give increased facili- 
ties for the preservation and transportation of all types of vegetable 
products from every part of the world. Many plants now little known 
will be studied, improved, and made available. Fewer seeds and less 
cellulose or fiber will remain in many of the plants now in common 
use. There will very likely be greater concentration of the valuable 
constituents of such foods for convenience in transportation and 
preservation, but none of the improvements are likely to change the 
tad that the vegetables are at their best when the interval between 
their picking and their use is the shortest possible. 

GROWING VEGETABLES FOR THE HOME TABLE. 

Women should be encouraged to take more interest in the vege- 
table garden. Even the actual work there is less taxing than much 
that is done indoors, which gives less valuable return in health and 
comfort. (Reference No. IT.) 

I \ egetable Foods, Bat 245.] 



94 VEGETABLES FOE THE TABLE: MARKETING. 

Too many gardens are planted all at once. It is far better to leave 
open spaces and plant additional rows of lettuce, radishes, beans, and 
corn each week until after the middle of summer. Another important 
point is to prevent the maturing of any seeds if it is desired that 
plants continue to produce. Therefore cucumbers, summer squash, 
etc., must be kept closely cut, even when not needed for the home table. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FIFTEENTH LECTURE. 

Materials needed. — Pencils and paper. 

Exercise. — Plan menus for single meals or longer periods containing a wide 
variety of vegetable products and supplement any deficiencies of nutritive value 
by other additions. (Reference No. 56.) 

Eeview any processes needing further attention. 

Take this opportunity to test initiative of pupils in the preparation of any 
novel vegetable products available at the time. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS, FIFTEENTH LECTURE. 

1. Tell all you can of the weights and measures commonly used for the sale 
of vegetables. 

2. Are there any improvements that you can suggest in market customs? 

3. How many varieties of vegetables are attainable in your vicinity from 
garden or market? 

4. Are there any vegetables available which are not used in your household, 
and why? 

5. What means have you employed to make any vegetable more i>opular on 
your family table? 

6. Mention cases in your experience when vegetables were unpalatable Ih'<:ius<- 
of careless methods of cooking. 

7. What of the relative economy of animal and vegetable foods for your 
household? 

8. Plan a menu for one week including as little meat as you think would be 
reasonable. 

9. Compare the energy required to care for a home vegetable garden with 
that used in making cake, pies, and puddings. 

10. What have you to say regarding the rational use of meats, vegetables, 
and desserts in planning wholesome meals? 

[Vegetable Foods, Bui. 245.] 



APPENDIX. 

REFERENCES. 

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

1. How to Grow Mushrooms. Farmers' Bui. 53. 

2. Bee Keeping. Farmers' Bui. 59. 

3. Mushrooms as Food. Farmers' Bui. 79. 

4. Sugar as Food. Farmers' Bui. 93. 

5. Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food. Farmers' Bui. 121. 

6. Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. Farmers' Bui. 135. 

7. Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. Farmers' Bui. 142. 

8. Cassava. Farmers' Bui. 167. 

9. Home Manufacture and Use of U nfermented Grape Juice. Farmers' Bui. 175. 

10. Dandelions in the Lawn. Farmers' Bui. 186. 

11. Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. Formers' Bui. 203. 

12. The Cultivation of Mushrooms. Farmers' Bui. 204. 

13. Okra : Its Culture and Uses. Farmers' Bui. 232. 

14. Cereal Breakfast Foods. Farmers' Bui. 249. 

15. Maple Sugar and Sirup. Farmers' Bui. 252. 

16. Cucumbers. Farmers' Bui. 254. 

17. The Home Vegetable Garden. Farmers' Bui. 255. 

IS. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. Farmers' Bui. 256. 

19. Methods of Canning. Farmers' Bui. 262. 

20. Celery. Farmers' Bui. 282. 

21. Use of Fruit as Food. Farmers' Bui. 293. 

22. Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. Farmers' Bui. 295. 

23. The Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. Farmers' Bui. 298. 

24. Home-Grown Tea. Farmers' Bui. 301. 

25. Sweet Potatoes. Farmers' Bui. 324. 

26. Nuts and Their Uses as Food. Farmers' Bui. 332. 

27. Canning Vegetables in the Home. Farmers' Bui. 359. 

28. Care of Food in the Home. Farmers' Bui. 375. 

29. Economical Use of Meat in the Home. Farmers' Bui. 39L 

30. Chemical Composition of American Food Materials (Rev. Ed.). Office 
Expt. Stas. Bui. 28. 

31. Food and Nutrition Investigations in New Jersey. Office Expt. Stas. Bui. 35. 

32. Losses in Boiling Vegetables, etc. Office Expt. Stas. Bui. 43. 

33. Iron in Food and its Functions in Nutrition. Office Expt. Stas. Bui. 185. 

34. Course in Cereal Foods and Their Preparation. Office Expt. Stas. BuL 200. 

35. Digestibility of Starch as Affected by Cooking. Office Expt. Stas. l'.til. 2<>2. 
.".('». Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphorus in Food and Nutrition. Office Brpt 

Stas. Bui. 227. 

37. Functions and Uses of Foods. Office Expt. Stas. Bui. Circ. 46. (rev.) 

38. Relation of Nutrition [nvesttgattons to Questions <>f Home Managemenl 
(Reprinted from Ann. Rpt <>r o k. s.. 1907). 

39. Farmers' institutes. Office Expt stas. Bui. 178. 

i<>. choose and Other Substitutes for Moat in the Diel I Reprinted from Year- 
book, 1910). 

96 



96 APPENDIX. 

41. The Honey Bee — A Manual of Instruction in Apiculture. In Div. Entoiuol. 
Bui. 1. (n. ser.) 

42. Olive Oil and Its Substitutes. Bur. Chem. Bui. 77. 

43. Some Forms of Food Adulteration. Bur. Chem. Bui. 100. 

44. Three New Plant Introductions from Japan. Bur. Plant Indus. Bui. 412. 

45. The Wastes of the Farm (Reprinted from Yearbook. 100S). 

46. Observations on Recent Cases of Mushroom Poisoning in the District of 
Columbia. Div. Botany Circ. 13. 

47. Horse-Radish. Div. Botany Circ. 15. 

48. Yams in the West Indies. Div. Botany Circ. 21. 

49. Burr or Globe Artichokes. Div. Botany Circ. 22. 

50. Some Edible and Poisonous Fungi. Div. Yeg. Path. Bui. 15. 

51. Standards of Purity of Food Products. Office Sec. Circ. 10. 

UNITED STATES NAVY DEPARTMENT. 

52. Mem. Information of Officers. Pay Corps, etc., 85, April 1, 1908. 

PUBLICATIONS OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

53. Mushroom Growing for Amateurs. New York (Cornell) Experiment 
Station Bui. 227. 

54. Buckwheat. New York CCornell) Experiment Station Bol. 238. 

55. Insect Pests of House and Garden. Cornell Reading-Course for Farmers' 
Wives, n. ser. 1. Bui. 2. 

5G. Human Nutrition. Cornell Reading-Course for Farmers' Wives, n. ser. 
2. Bui. 6. 

57. Composition of Mushrooms. Vermont Experiment Station Rpt. 1903 

58. Canning Fruits and Vegetables. Preserving Fruit Juices. Oregon Experi- 
ment Station Bui. S7. Canning Mushrooms. Oregon Experiment Station 
Bui. 98. 

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 

59. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. H. W. Conn. 

60. Food and the Principles of Dietetics. Robert Hutchison. 

61. Food Materials and their Adulterations (Third Edition). Ellen II. 
Richards. 

62. Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning. Ellen H. Richards and S. Maria 
Elliott. 

63. Household Bacteriology. S. Maria Elliott. 

64. Food and Dietetics. Alice F. Norton. 

65. Chemistry of the Household. Margaret E. Dodd. 

66. The Book of Vegetables. Allen French. 

67. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. E. II. Bailey, Editor. 

68. Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery. T. F. Garret. Editor. 

69. Boston Cook Book. Mary J. Lincoln. 

70. Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Fannie M. Fanner. 

71. Selection and Preparation of Food. Isabel Bevier and Anna R. Van Meter. 

72. Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery. Mary E. Williams and 
Katharine R. Fisher. 

73. Home Science Cook-Book. Mary J. Lincoln and Anna Barrows. 

74. Principles of Cookery. Anna Barrows. 

75. Vegetable Cookery and Meat Substitutes. Sarah T. Rorer. 

76. Practical Cooking and Serving. Janel M. Hill. 

77. European and American Cookery. Gesine Lemcke. 

78. How to Cook Vegetables. Olive Green. 



APPENDIX. 



97 



79. Foundations of Botany. J. Y. Bergen. 

80. The Teaching Botanist. William F. Ganong. 

81. Botany. Charles E. Bessey. 

82. Chemistry — Briefer Course. Ira Remsen. 

83. Human Mechanism. T. Hough and W. T. Sedgwick. 

84. The Spirit of Cookery. J. L. W. Thudichum. 

85. Introduction to General Biology. W. T. Sedgwick and E. B. Wilson. 
8G. Food and Its Functions. James Knight. 

87. The Pleasures of the Table. G. H. Elwanger. 

88. Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cookery. Mary H. Abel. 

89. The Fireless Cook Book. Margaret J. Mitchell. 

90. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. O. T. Mason. 

91. Home Economics. Maria Parloa. 

92. Fuels of the Household. Marian White. 

93. Salads and Sauces. Thomas J. Murrey. 

94. Art of Cookery. Emma P. Ewing. 

95. Mushrooms and Their Use. Charles H. Peck. 
9G. Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life. H. Snyder. 

97. Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value. H. Suyder. 
9S. French Home Cooking. Berthe J. Low. 
99. Outlines of Lessons in Botany. Newell. 

100. Our Viands. Buckland. 

101. The Chocolate Plant. W. Baker & Co. 

102. Spices and How to Know Them. W. M. Gibbs. 

103. Chemistry of Cookery. W. M. Williams. 

104. Encyclopedia Americana. 



LIST OF APPARATUS AND SUPPLIES REQUIRED. 



APPARATUS FOR GENERAL r/ SE- 



Stove. 

Scales. 

12 glass jars, pints aud half pints. 

1 quart measure. 

1 can opener. 

1 potato slicer. 

1 wire potato masher. 

1 frying basket. 

2 to 6 kettles or stewpans. 
1 double boiler. 1 quart. 

1 double boiler, 2 quart. 

1 Dover egg beater. 

1 wire egg beater. 

Food chopper. 

Vegetable cutters of different types. 

Chopping bowl and knife. 

Molds. 

Bean pot. 

Pudding dishes. 

Colander. 

Fruit funnel. 

pish pan. 

14579°— . Bui. 2tn— 12 7 



Garbage can. 

Box of labels. 

Boll of paper. 

Twine. 

Scissors. 

Dish towels. 

Cheesecloth. 

Paper towels. 

Alcohol or oil for stov< 

Iodin. 

Ether. 

Nitric acid. 

Test tubes. 

Filter paper. 

Pet lie dishes. 

Thermometer. 
Sirup grange. 
Microscope. 
Blackboard ami chalk. 

Charts. 
Thumb tacks. 






98 



APPENDIX. 



APPARATUS BOR INDIVIDUAL USE OF PUPILS. 



As many of each article as there are pupils in the class. 



Measure cups. 

Tin or agate pans. 

Tin or agate plates to cover pans. 

Earthen bowls, 1 quart each. 

Strainers to fit cup (fine). 

Strainers to fit bowl (coarser). 

Tablespoon. 

Teaspoons. 



Knife and fork. 

Palette knife. 

Paring knife. 

Saucepans. 

Frying pans. 

Graters. 

Note books and pencils. 



SUPPLIES. 



Whatever green vegetables are available, as mentioned in each lesson, or any 
canned vegetables that will aid in the lessons when fresh vegetables are not 
available. Also the following : 



Dry beans and peas. 




Rice. 


Nuts. 




Tapioca. 


Peanut butter. 




Cornstarch. 


Potatoes. 




Salt. 


Squash seeds. 




Pepper. 


Olive oil, cottonseed oil, 


or other 


Spices, etc. 


salad oil. 




Tea. 


Vinegar. 




Coffee. 


Flour. 




Chocolate. 


Sugaiv 




Vanilla bean. 


Butter. 




Cream of tartar 


Cream. 




Soda. 


Milk. 




Soap. 


Eggs. 




Sand soap. 



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